f 


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The  History 


English  Language 


FROM   THB 


TEUTONIC  INVASION  OF  BRITAIN 


CLOSE    OF    THE    GEOEGIAH"    EEA. 


/       .  BY 

HENRY  E.  SHEPHERD, 

Professor  of  the  English  Language  and  English  Literatvre, 


NEW  YORK: 

E.  J.  HALE  &  SON,  PUBLISHERS, 

Murray  Street. 

1874 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1874.  by 

E.  .1.  HALE  &  SON, 
In  the  OflBce  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washinj:ton. 


Lange,  Little  4  Co., 

PKINTERS,  ELECTROTYPHR3  AND  STERKOTYPEIl*. 

108  TO  114  WoosTER  Strrkt,  N.  Y. 


PREFACE, 


This  work  is  a  History  of  the  English  Language,  not  a 
history  of  English  Literature.  Its  design  is  to  trace  the 
growth  and  formation  of  our  tongue,  the  influences  that 
have  affected  its  development,  or  have  impressed  upon  it 
certain  characteristics.  All  purely  literary  criticism  is 
therefore  irrelevant,  except  so  far  as  it  may  tend  to  illus- 
trate the  peculiarities  of  the  language,  or  to  explain  its 
apparent  anomalies  and  its  complexities.  The  book  con- 
tains the  substance  of  tlie  Lectures  delivered  to  the  ad-  ' 
vanced  classes  in  English  in  the  Baltimore  City  College 
during  the  past  three  years,  and  is  intended  for  the 
purposes  of  instruction  in  Colleges,  High  Schools,  and 
Academies,  as  well  as  to  meet  the  wants  of  general  read- 
ers. The  necessity  for  some  work  similar  in  design  to 
the  present  must  be  obvious  to  all  teachers  of  the  English  ,^ 
language  in  the  United  States.  The  want  of  suitable 
text-books  constitutes  one  of  the  most  serious  obstacles 
with  which  the  magnificent  and  rapidly  expanding  science 
of  English  Philology  has  to  contend  upon  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic. 


4  PREFACE. 

It  is  but  just  to  acknowledge  in  grateful  terms  the  as- 
sistance derived  from  many  excellent  treatises,  English, 
German,  French,  and  American.  Especial  acknowledg- 
ment is  due  to  the  admirable  publications  of  the  Early- 
English  Text  Society,  and  the  Clarendon  Press  Series. 
With  thiese  remarks,  the  work  is  submitted  to  the  con- 
sideration of  teachers  and  of  all  persons  desirous  of 
promoting  the  scientific  study  of  the  English  Language 
in  the  United  States. 


OONTEJSTTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

^  PAGB 

^  THE  ARYAN  OR  INDO-EUROPEAN  LANGUAGES 9 

CHAPTER  I. 

/ANGLO-SAXON  PERIOD.      A.   D.    449-A.    D.   106 J 19 

^  CHAPTER  II. 

•^  THE   NORMAN    CONQUEST 32 

CHAPTER  III. 

V   THE     INFLUENCE     OF     THE     NORMAN     CONQUEST     UPON      THE 

ANGLO-SAXON    TONGUE 40 

CHAPTER  IV. 

i/TRANSITION  OP  SAXON  INTO    ENGLISH 49 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  WORKS  OP  THE  TRANSITION  PERIOD 55 

CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  RISE   OF  THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 63 

CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  RISE   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE — {continued) 72 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

PIERS,  THE    PLOWMAN 78 

CHAPTER  IX. 

THE   WYCLIFFITE   VERSIONS   OF   THE   SCRIPTURES 84 


6  COJ^TENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  X. 

^     THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  IN  THE  AGE  OP  CHAUCER 89 

CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  AGE  OF  CHAUCER  AND  GOWER 94 

CHAPTER  XII. 

THE  AGE  OF  CHAUCER  AND    QOWEU— {continued) 98 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  PRONUNCIATION  OF  THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  IN  THE  AGE 

OF  CHAUCER. 106 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

^      THE  VOCABULARY   OF   THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE 112 

CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  VOCABULARY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE— (C(?7l^mwe^) .  .    138 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE   FROM    CHAUCER   TO   CAXTON.       A.   D. 

1400-1474 140 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  INFLUENCE   OP   PRINTING  UPON   THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.    143 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  FROM  THE    COMMENCEMENT  OP  THE 
SIXTEENTH    CENTURY    TO   THE    ACCESSION   OF    ELIZABETH, 

1500-1558. 148 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE  FORMATION  OF  ELIZABETHAN    ENGLISH 155 

CHAPTER  XX. 

ELIZABETHAN  ENGLISH 165 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

THE  ELIZABETHAN  ERA.      1580-1625 173 


CONTENTS.  7 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

THE  TRANSLATION  OF  THE   SCRIPTURES 181 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

THE    CHANGES  IN  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE   SINCE  THE  ELIZA- 
BETHAN ERA 185 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

THE  ENGLISH    LANGUAGE  FROM    THE     CLOSE     OF    THfi    ELIZA- 
BETHAN ERA  TO  THE  RESTORATION,  1625-1660 190 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE    DURING    THE   RESTORATION.      1660- 

1685 195 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

THE    ENGLISH  LANGUAGE    FROM  THE    CLOSE    OF   THE    ERA    OP 
THE    RESTORATION  TO  THE    ACCESSION    OF    QUEEN    ANNE, 

1685-1702 203 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE     FROM    THE     ACCESSION    OF    QUEEN 

ANNE   TO  THE   DEATH  OF   DR    JOHNSON.      1702-1784 213 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE   FROM  THE     DEATH   OF   DR.    SAMUEL 
JOHNSON  (1784)   TO  THE    CLOSE    OF    THE    GEORGIAN    ERA 

(1830) 223 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  ARYAN  OR  INDO-EUROPEAN  LANGUAGES. 

The  languages  of  the  Aryan*  or  Indo-European  family 
may  be  divided  into  the  following  classes  :  The  Sanskrit 
and  its  dialects,  the  Persian  or  Tranic,  the  Greek,  the 
Latin,  the  Gothic  or  Teutonic,  the  Sclavonic,  the  Lithu- 
anian, and  the  Celtic.  The  former  of  these  designations 
is  a  term  of  comparatively  recent  introduction  into  the 
science  of  language,  and  is  probably  derived  from  the 
primitive  home  of  the  race,  Arya,  the  central  highlands 
of  Asia.  The  word,  according  to  some  etymologists,  is 
related  to  the  Latin  root  ar^  to  plough  {arare)^  old  Eng- 
lish ear:  Piers  Ploughman's  Vision ;  Genesis,  45th  chap. ; 
Shakspere,  Richard  11. ;  and  is  indicative  of  the  agricul- 

*  Judging  from  the  evidence  of  language,  ttie  Aryan  tribes  seem 
to  have  made  considerable  progress  in  civilization  before  their  migra- 
tion from  their  original  home.  The  words  pertaining  to  peaceful 
occupations  are  the  same  in  most  of  the  dialects  of  this  family, 
while  those  relating  to  the  chase  and  to  warlike  employments  are 
different.  Terms  in  familiar  use,  sorne  of  which  indicate  a  condi- 
tion of  society  decidedly  advanced  beyond  mere  barbarism,  are  the 
same  in  most  languages  of  this  class.  Such,  for  example,  are  the 
words  for  king,  door,  plough,  daughter,  mother,  father,  son,  sister, 
father-in-law,  son-in-law,  mother-in-laio,  daughter-in-law,  brother-in- 
law,  the  words  for  clothing,  weaving,  sewing,  and  the  numeral  sys- 
tems from  ten  to  a  hundred. 

1* 


10  INTRODUCTIOIT. 

tural  habits  of  those  to  whom  it  was  applied.  The  term 
Aryan  does  not  appear  to  have  met  with  general  accept- 
ance, and  it  is  perhaps  liable  to  objection,  as  its  applica- 
tion is  restricted  almost  entirely  to  one  branch  of  the 
linguistic  family,  the  Persian,  and  does  not  assign  to  the 
otliers  their  proper  degree  of  importance.  The  latter 
designation  (Indo-European)  is  intended  to  point  out  the 
territorial  position  and  the  geographical  connection  of  the 
races  which  speak  the  languages  it  represents.  There 
have  been  various  attempts  made  to  assign  some  definite 
locality  as  the  original  home  of  the  Indo-European  or 
Aryan  family.  Such  efforts,  however,  have  resulted  in 
ingenious  speculations,  and  we  have  not  even  a  plausible 
tradition  w^hich  will  assist  us  in  forming  a  determinate 
and  satisfactory  conclusion.  There  can  exist  no  reason- 
able doubt,  however,  that,  at  a  period  antecedent  to 
authentic  history,  the  Indo-European  race  constituted 
one  community  or  society;  associated  by  the  natural 
and  easy  ties  of  a  common  language  and  a  common 
faith.  We  are  not  in  this  regard  so  destitute  of  evi- 
dence, for  the  absence  of  historic  testimony  is  to  a 
considerable  degree  compensated  by  the  proofs  of  linguis- 
tic relationship,  w^hich  all  the  dialects  of  this  widely 
extended  family  present.  In  some  instances  the  resem- 
blance is  clear  ami  well  defined  ;  in  others  the  lineaments 
are  marred,  and  almost  effaced  ;  but  whenever  subjected 
to  the  rigid  test  of  scientific  comparison,  the  blurred  out- 
lines reveal  their  primitive  identity  and  ancient  kinship. 
Let  us  now  examine  in  detail  the  dialectic  divisions 
of  the  Indo-European  languages.  At  a  period  an- 
terior to  the  rise  of  history,  the  different  tribes  began 
their  migrations  towards  the  West.  It  is  commonly  as- 
sumed that  the  Celtic  migrations  preceded  the  others, 


INTRODUCTIOii".  11 

but  this  hypothesis  rests  upon  no  more  substantial  basis 
than  the  confused  and  inconsistent  legends  transmitted  to 
us  by  these  tribes.  From  the  earliest  times,  Germany  is 
inhabited  by  tlie  Germans.  This  much  at  least  seems 
probable,  that  the  Sclavonic  was  the  last  branch  that 
wandered  far  to  the  West.  The  Sclavonians  retain 
nearly  the  same  area  which  they  at  first  occupied,  and  it 
is  within  a  comparatively  recent  period  that  they  have 
begun  to  acquire  the  elements  of  civilization.  Of  the 
different  classes  into  which  tlie  Indo-European  or  Aryan 
family  is  divided,  the  Gothic  or  Teutonic  class  possesses 
for  the  student  of  the  English  language  an  immediate 
value,  and  demands  careful  investigation.  Its  dialectic 
divisions  are:  First,  The  Germanic,  which  is  again  di- 
vided into  the  Moeso-Gothic,  the  Old  Saxon,  the  Low 
German,  the  Dutch,  including  the  Flemish,  the  Frisic,  and 
the  Hio^h  German.  Second.  The  Scandinavian  branch, 
which  comprehends  the  Icelandic,  the  Swedish,  the 
Danish,  and  their  parent,  the  old  Norse. 

The  Moeso-Gothic  (Gothic  of  Moesia)  is  the  oldest  rep- 
resentative of  this  branch.  Early  in  the  fourth  century, 
one  division  of  the  great  Gothic  family  settled  in  Moesia, 
became  subject  to  the  Roman  government,  and  was  con- 
verted to  Christianit}^  Ulfilas,  their  famous  bishop, 
who  was  identified  with  the  sect  of  Arius,  translated  the 
Scriptures  into  Gothic  for  the  benefit  of  his  countrymen, 
a  design  displaying  remarkable  boldriess  and  power,  as 
the  influence  of  the  classic  languages  was  then  predomi- 
nant, and  no  others  were  deemed  worthy  or  capable  of 
literary  culture.  The  Low  German  comprehends  many 
dialects  in  common  use  in  the  low  country,  or  northern 
parts  of  Germany.  The  Frisic  occupied  nearly  the  same 
territorial   area   with    the    Old   Saxon,   the   coasts   and 


12  II^TRODUCTIOIT. 

islands  of  tlie  !N"ortli  Sea.  The  Frisic  exhibits  a  marked 
resemblance  to  the  English.  The  Dutch  has  been  spoken 
in  Holland  since  the  thirteenth  century,  although  its  lit- 
erary pre-eminence  dates  from  the  sixteenth.  The  Flem- 
ish, in  the  thirteentb  century,  was  the  speech  of  the  court 
of  Flanders,  and  has  its  own  records ;  it  is  now  almost 
entirely  supplanted  by  the  Dutch.  The  Old  Saxon  was 
the  principal  dialect  of  Northern  Germany,  between  the 
Khine  and  the  Elbe.  It  is  preserved  to  us  in  the  Heli- 
and,  or  Saviour,  a  work  which  must  be  referred  to  the 
ninth  century.  The  term  Old  Saxon  is  used  to  distin- 
guish the  language  of  the  Continental  tribes  from  that 
spoken  by  the  Teutonic  invaders  of  Britain,  after  their 
conquest  of  that  country.  There  is  no  Continental  lan- 
guage to  which  Anglo-Saxon  can  be  affiliated.  It  accords 
most  nearly  with  the  Frisic.  But  it  is  most  probable 
that  it  'was  indigenous  in  England,  being  formed  by 
the  gradual  blending  of  the  many  Teutonic  dialects  in- 
troduced by  the  various  Germanic  invaders,  the  British 
tribes,  and  the  Romanized  inhabitants  who  spoke  the 
Lingua  Rustica  Romana,  in  various  corruptions.  The 
High  German  is  tlie  language  of  learning  and  literature 
in  Germany,  and  has  been  so  since  the  reign  of  Charle- 
magne. Its  complete  ascendency,  however,  dates  from 
the  Reformation,  and  the  translation  of  .the  Bible  by 
Luther. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  great  religious  revolution  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  there  prevailed  in  Germany  the . 
same  discordance  and  variety  of  dialects  which  existed 
at  the  era  of  the  Saxon  conquest  of  England.  Since  the 
introduction  of  Christianity,  several  of  the  Germanic 
idioms  had  asserted  their  claims  to  literary  pre-eminence. 
The  Alemannic,  Frankish,  and  Bavarian  tongues  had  each 


INTEODUCTIOK.  13 

become  the  medium  of  literary  effort ;  then  the  Swabian 
dialect  acquired  the  superiority,  and  it  still  contains 
some  of  the  most  cherished  memorials  of  German  hero- 
ism. The  language  of  Luther,  acquiring  an  intensified 
force  from  the  invention  of  printing,  and  the  impulse 
communicated  to  theological  investigation  by  the  revival 
of  classical  literature,  permeated  every  part  of  the  coun- 
try, and  became  the  general  medium  of  all  grades  of 
society.  This  language  was  not  the  idiom  of  any  dis- 
trict or  any  class,  but  one  which  had  already  established 
a  just  claim  to  be  regarded  as  a  literary  speech,  since 
it  constituted  the  ofiicial  language  of  the  most  impor- 
tant principalities  in  Southern  and  Central  Germany. 
It  was  universally  acknowledged  as  the  language  of  liter- 
ature and  learning,  and  since  that  period  its  ascendency 
has  been  undisputed.  Whatever  dialectic  peculiarities 
may  exist  among  the  uneducated,  those  who  control  the 
intellectual  forces  of  Germany,  those  who  compose  the 
refined  and  educated  classes,  speak  and  write  nothing  else. 

The  High  German  may  be  divided  into  three  epochs ; 
the  present  or  New  High  German,  which  dates  from  the 
time  of  Luther;  the  Middle  High  German,  extending 
back  from  Luther  to  the  twelfth  century  ;  the  Old  High 
German,  extending  back  to  the  ninth  century. 

The  earliest  literary  memorials  of  the  Scandinavian 
branch  come  to  us  from  Iceland,  where  Christianity  exer- 
cised a  more  conservative  influence  than  in  Germany,  and 
did  not  destroy  the  ancient  historic  and  religious  move- 
ments. These  are  the  two  Eddas,  which  are  both  valuable 
on  account  of  their  antiquity,  being  the  oldest  productions 
of  l^orse  literature,  as  well  as  on  account  of  the  informa- 
tion they  convey  respecting  the  primitive  condition  of  the 
Germanic  race.     The   Icelandic  preserves  most  closely 


14  INTRODUCTIOI?'. 

tlie  primitive  Scandinavian  type.  The  Norwegian,  the 
Danish^  and  the  Swedish,  are  cultivated  languages,  the 
Norwegian  bearing  the  nearest  relationship  to  the  ancient 
Norse  tongue.  The  others  are  descended  from  more  an- 
cient dialectic  divisions  of  Scandinavian  speech. 

The  Celtic  branch  consists  of  two  divisions  :  First,  the 
Gaelic,  comprehending  the  primitive  language  of  Ireland, 
the  language  of  the  Scottish  Highlanders,*  and  the  Manx 
of  the  Isle  of  Man.     Second,  the  Cymric,  the  speech  of 

*  The  Scottish  dialect  (Lowland  Scotch)  spoken  in  the  southern 
parts  of  Scotland,  is  entitled  to  a  recognition  in  our  classification  of 
languages.  This  is  an  Anglo-Danish  dialect,  formed  chiefly  by  the 
admixture  of  Anglian  or  Germanic  elements  (the  Angles,  in  their 
original  occupation  of  Britain,  having  spread  extensively  over  the 
Lowlands  of  Scotland,  as  the  Danes  did  afterwards),  and  Danish  or 
Scandinavian  forms,  and  containing  very  few  Celtic  words.  After 
the  conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans,  many  of  the  expatriated 
Saxons  took  refuge  in  Scotland,  and  thus  considerably  increased  the 
Germanic  population  that  had  already  been  established  between  the 
Tweed  and  the  Forth.  The  kings  of  Scotland  received  these  exiles 
with  especial  distinction,  and  promoted  them  to  positions  of  dignity 
and  honour.  The  same  generous  hospitality  was  accorded  to  men  of 
Norman  race,  who  were  dissatisfied  with  their  share  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  spoils,  or  who  had  been  expelled  from  England  by  the 
decree  of  the  conqueror.  These  banished  or  discontented  Normans 
resorted  to  the  court  of  Scotland,  where  they  were  received  into  ser- 
vice, and  invested  with  important  military  commands.  The  Scottish 
monarchs,  in  order  to  render  their  court  more  attractive  to  their 
Norman  guests,  endeavoured  to  engraft  upon  the  Teutonic  dialect 
already  spoken  there,  many  French  terms,  and  French  constructions. 
These  foi-eign  idioms  were  gradually  naturalized  in  the  region  south 
of  the  Forth,  and  the  national  language  of  that  part  of  the  country 
soon  became  an  equal  admixture  of  Germanic,  Scandinavian,  and 
Norman  French.  The  Scottish  dialect  is  rapidly  hastening  to  decay ; 
before  the  end  of  the  present  century  it  will  probably  be  confined  to 
the  humble  and  uneducated  classes.  A  hundred  years  ago  it  was  cur- 
rent among  the  higher  ranks  of  society,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  it  was  intelligible  to  every  one.  Its  literary  ascendency 
was  destroyed  at  the  Eeformation,  as  no  Scottish  version  of  the 


»\ 


INTEODUCTIOK. 

the  Welsh,  the  Cornish,  which  is  no\ 
Armorican  or  Breton,  spoken  in  the  pro^ 
the  ancient  Arraorica. 

Of  the  Indian  division,  the  most  important  is  the  Sans- 
krit, a  language  which  flourished  several  centuries  before 
the  age  of  Solomon,  and  which  exhibits  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  English,  some  of  the  most  useful  vocables  being 
almost  identical  in  each  language!  For  more  than  two 
thousand  years  Sanskrit  has  ceased  to  exist  as  a  spoken 
idiom,  and  it  is  now  employed  as  the  official  language 
of  the  priesthood,  as  the  medium  of  literature,  and  is 
taught  in  the  Brahmanic  schools.  Its  most  valuable  memo- 
rials are  the  four  Yedas,  the  Brahmanic  Scriptures.  Its 
lineal  descendants  are  the  Prakit  and  Pali  dialects,  which 
in  their  turn  were  succeeded  by  the  languages  now  spoken 
in  Hindostan  ;  theHindostani  ;  the  Bengah' ;  and  Mara- 
thi.  The  varying  dialects  of  the  Gypsies  are  manifestly 
related  to  the  Indian  family. 

The  Persian  or  Iranian  class  includes,  First,  the 
Zend,  preserved  in  the  Avesta,  or  Zend  Avesta, 
the  sacred  writings,  and  its  home  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  country  known  as  Bactria ;  Second,  the 

Scriptures  was  ever  authorized.  John  Knox  and  his  associates  were 
accused  of  Anglicizing  in  their  language  as  well  as  in  their  politics, 
and  Ninian  Winzet,  the  Popish  antagonist  of  Knox,  was  the  last 
who  wrote  the  language  in  its  purity.  The  union  of  the  crowns,  in 
the  succeeding  century,  reduced  Scotland  to  the  condition  of  a  mere 
province,  but  left  it  in  possession  of  a  noble  literature,  the  product 
of  two  centuries  which  had  intervened  from  Barbour  to  James  VI., 
the  last  of  the  Scottish  kings,  and  who  may  be  considered  the  last 
of  the  Scottish  poets  in  more  senses  than  one.  The  Scottish  dialect 
was  formed  under  the  same  influences  as  the  English  ;  its  character- 
istics are  familiar  to  the  readers  of  Burns  and  Sir  Walter  Scott. 
Many  of  the  difliculties  of  Shakspere's  English  receive  their  suc- 
cessful elucidation  in  this  dialect. 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

old  Persian,  wliicli  is  found  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions 
by  which  the  conquerors  of  the  East  endeavoured  to  trans- 
mit the  record  of  their  achievements.  Third,  the  modern 
Persian,  which  has  been  simplified  by  the  loss  of  its  in- 
flections, and  has  received  large  accessions  of  Arabic 
words. 

To  this  class  may  also  be  j-eferred  the  language  of  the 
Kurds,  the  Afghans,  and  the  ancient  and  the  modern 
Armenians.  The  cultivated  dialectic  varieties  of  ancient 
Greek  were  the  JEolic,  the  Ionic,  the  Doric,  and  the 
Attic.  The  Attic,  by  superior  culture,  attained  the  pre- 
eminence, and  became  the  general  speech  of  cultivated 
society.  The  Greek  was  succeeded  by  the  Eomaic  or 
modern  Greek,  which  has  experienced  a  simplification 
of  structure  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  Anglo-Saxon  in 
its  transition  into  English.  The  Latin,  in  the  classic 
form  in  which  it  has  descended  to  us,  exhibits  the  dialect 
of  books,  and  of  the  educated  Pomans  fronri  about  a  cen- 
tury before  the  Christian  Era.  It  was  one  of  a  number 
of  Italian  dialects,  over  which  it  gradually  acquired  the 
ascendency.  Its  modern  descendants,  the  Romance  (Ro- 
man) languages,  are  the  Italian,  the  Spanish,  the  Portu- 
guese, the  Proven9al,  formerly  the  language  of  South 
France,  Langue  D'Oc,  the  French  proper,  formerly  spo- 
ken in  ^N^orthern  France,  Langue  D'Oyl ;  the  Wallachian, 
spoken  in  the  Turkish  provinces  of  Wallachia  and  Mol- 
davia (northern  Turkey),  but  largely  interpenetrated  with 
Sclavonic  words  ;  the  Catalan,  spoken  in  Spain,  and  gen- 
erally classed  as  a  dialect  of  the  Spanish,  though  its  lin- 
guistic position  is  independent ;  the  Rbseto-Ronianic  or 
Roumansch,  spoken  in  Southern  Switzerland  and  around 
the  head  of  the  Adriatic  Sea.  The  term  Romance,  as 
the  designation  of  these  languages,  may  be  traced  to  the 


INTRODUCTIOlf.  17 

Lingua  Rnstica  Romana  or  Popular  Latin,  upon  which 
tliey  are  principally  leased.  The  oldest  member  of  the 
Sclavonic  family  is  the  ancient  Bulgarian,  commonly 
known  as  the  Church  Sclavic,  or  Sclavonic,  and  still  the 
sacred  language  of  the  Greek  Church.  The  most  widely 
diffused  branch  is  the  Russian,  which  has  two  divisions, 
the  Russian  proper  and  the  little  Russian,  the  latter  in- 
cluding the  Servian,  the  Croatian,  and  Slavonian.  The 
others  are  the  Polish,  the  Bohemian,  the  Moravian,  the 
Slovakian,  the  Sorbian,  and  the  Polatian,  spoken  on  the 
Elbe.  The  Polish  language  began  to  be  cultivated  in 
the  fourteenth  century,  and  it  was  at  one  time  the 
vehicle  of  a  flourishing  literature,  which  perished  with 
the  extinction  of  Polish  nationality.  The  Lithuanic  or 
Lettic  family  includes  the  old  Prussian  formerly  spoken 
in  northeastern  Prussia,  and  now  superseded  by  the 
'Low  German.  The  Lithuanian  and  the  Lettish  are  still 
in  use  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Russian  and  Prussian 
provinces  along  the  Baltic  Sea,  but  are  rapidly  jdelding 
to  the  encroachments  of  the  German  and  the  Russian, 
and  seem  destined  to  speedy  extinction.  During  the 
year  1871  there  was  a  decree  issued  by  the  Russian 
Government,  prohibiting  the  use  of  the  German,  and 
prescribing  the  employment  of  the  Russian  within  the 
Baltic  provinces  of  Russia.  The  Indo-European  or  Aryan 
family  is  not  restricted  to  a  circumscribed  area,  but  is 
exposed  to  the  influence  of  other  tongues,  to  some  of 
which  it  is  geographically  related.  In  the  present  state 
of  linguistic  science  the  true  position  and  relation  of  all 
the  languages  of  Europe  is  not  ascertained. 

The  Etruscan,  spoken  in  ancient  Etruria  (Tuscany),  is 
still  the  puzzle  of  philologists  ;  the  Basque,  spoken  on 
each  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  is  of  Aquitanian  and  Iberian 


18  INTRODUCTIOIS^. 

origin.  On  its  northern  bomidarj  the  Aryan  family 
touches  the  Turanian  or  Altaic  class,  comprehending  the 
languages  of  the  Manchoos,  the  Mongols,  the  Asiatic 
and  the  European  Turks,  the  Magyars  in  Hungary,  the 
Finns,  and  the  Laplanders.  On  its  southeastern  frontier 
it  comes  into  contact  with  the  Dravidian  or  Tamulian 
group,  spoken  in  the  Deccan  or  southern  part  of  the 
peninsula  of  India.  In  southwestern  Asia  it  meets  the 
Semitic  class,  including  the  ancient  Hebrew,  the  sacred 
language  of  Israel,  the  Aramaic,  spoken  in  Syria,  Meso- 
potamia, Babylonia,  and  Assyria,  and  perpetuated  chiefly 
in  its  two  dialects,  the  Syriac  and  the  Chaldee.  The 
Aramaic  was  in  common  lise  among  the  Jews  at  the 
advent  of  Christianity,  having  been  adopted  by  them 
during-  the  Babylonish  captivity  for  the  purposes  of  lit- 
erary composition,  as  well  as  of  conversation.  It  pos- 
sesses for  us  a  peculiar  interest,  being  the  language 
w'hieh  w^as  spoken  by  our  Lord  and  his  disciples.* 

*  For  information  respecting  the  other  linguistic  families  of  the 
earth,  the  student  is  referred  to  the  excellent  works  of  Prof.  Max 
MUller  and  Prof.  Whitney. 


HISTOET 

OF  THE 


English  Language, 


CHAPTEK  I. 

ANGLO-SAXON  PERIOD.   A.  D.  44-9-A.  D.  1066. 

The  Teutonic  Invasions  of  Britain.  The  History  of 
the  English  Language  commences  with  the  Anglo-Saxon 
invasions  of  Britain,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  Era.*  By  the  term  Anglo-Saxon, 
we  are  not  to  understand  any  particular  tribe  or  nation,  or 
any  definite  number  of  tribes  or  clans.     The  word  is 

*  The  commencement  of  the  Germanic  invasions  of  Britain  was 
probably  long  anterior  to  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  of  the 
Christian  era.  It  was  from  this  period  that  these  invasions  assumed 
a  formidable  and  organized  character,  but  that  the  Germanic  tribes 
had  found  their  way  into  the  island  before  this  time  is  obvious  from 
the  following  facts  :  "  First.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  Marcomannic 
war,  Marcus  Antoninus  transplanted  a  number  of  Germans  into 
Britain.  Second.  Alemannic  auxiliaries  served  along  with  Eoman 
legions  under  Valentinian.  Third.  The  Notitia  Utriusque  Imperii, 
of  which  the  latest  date  is  half  a  century  earlier  than  the  epoch  of 
Hengist,  mentions  as  an  ofiicer  of  state,  the  Comes  litoris  Saxonici, 
per  Briiannias :  his  government  extending  along  the  coast  from 
Portsmouth  to  the  Wash." — Latham. 


20  HISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

employed  with  the  same  latitude  of  meaning  that  we 
attach  to  the  word  Indians,  and  is  merely  a  convenient 
designation  of  tliose  Teutonic  hordes  which  poured  into 
Britain  from  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  to 
the  middle  of  the  sixth.  The  Celts,  the  original  in- 
habitants of  the  island,  were  subdued  but  not  extir- 
pated by  the  invaders,  wlio  became  a  powerful  nation- 
ality, and  called  themselves  Aenglisc  or  English;  the 
country  they  called  Aengla-land,  the  land  of  the  Angles, 
or  England. "  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  nationality 
of  the  various  tribes  by  which  Britain  was  gradually 
colonized.  The  Anglo-Saxoii  tongue  cannot  be  identified, 
with  any  existing  Continental  speech,  nor  can  the  nation 
be  traced  to  any  particular  tribes  or  clans  whose  names 
history  has  recorded.  There  is  abundant  linguistic  evi- 
dence of  a  great  blending  of  dialects  and  tribes  in  the 
body  of  invaders  ;  the  Anglo-Saxon  was  not  a  harmo- 
nious or  symmetrical  language,  but  revealed  even  in  its 
purest  stages  the  diversity  of  elements  which  had  entered 
into  its  composition.  Its  etymologies  were  defective  in 
clearness,  its  syntax  was  discordant,  its  inflections  lacked 
the  regularity  that  characterizes  the  Latin.  Every  feature 
of  the  language  indicated  a  diversity,  not  a  unity  of 
origin,  and  we  may  safely  conclude  that  both  language 
and  people  were  formed  by  the  fusion  of  many  dialects 
and  clans  in  proportions  which  cannot  be  accurately 
determined,  and  whose  geographical  position  compre- 
hended all  that  part  of  Germany  between  the  Eliine  and 
the  Eider,  with  the  contiguous  countries,  Holland  and 
Denmark.  Tlie  Angles  were  probably  of  Danish  origin, 
or  at  least  Low  German.  They  were  thus  related  to  the 
Jutes,  who  settled  Kent  and  the  Isle  of  Wight.  The 
large  Scandinavian  element  among  the  conquerors  of 


AXGLO-SAXOI^   PERIOD.  21 

Britain  has  not  been  noted  with  that  degree  of  attention 
to  which  its  importance  entitles  it.  The  presence  of  this 
infusion  of  Scandinavian  blood  is  attested,  First.  By 
the  Danish  or  Scandinavian  vocables  and  constructions 
which  the  English  language  has  retained.  Second.  By 
the  numerous  Runic  monuments  that  have  been  dis- 
covered in  Scandinavia  and  in  England,  while  none  have 
been  brought,  to  light  upon  German  soil. 

The  Angles  spread  themselves  over  the  north  and  east 
of  England,  and  it  is  plausibly  conjectured  that  the  course 
of  their  conquests  sustained  some  relation  to  their  onginal 
position  upon  the-Continent.  The  population  of  North- 
umbria,  or  the  kingdoms  north  of  the  Humber,  of  East 
Anglia,  and  of  Kent,  may  thus  be  assigned  to  the  border- 
lands of  Denmai'k  and  Germany.*  This  semi-Scandina- 
vian origin  is  corroborated  by  the  vigorous  and  enterpris- 
ing spirit  of  the  race,  who  have  contributed  powerfully  to 
the  development  of  English  prosperity  and  greatness. 
The  origin  of  the  Saxons  is  not  so  easily  explained.  Essex, 
Sussex,  Wessex,  East  Saxons,  South  Saxons,  "West  Sax- 
ons, testify  by  their  names  to  Saxon  settlements.  ."From 
their  strong  nationality,  which  carried  them  through  so 
many  wars,  they  seem  to  have  been  a  people,  and  not  a 
mere  federation.  From  their  language,  from  their  sea- 
faring life,  from  their  great  aptitude  for  dyke-making, 
and  from  the  distinct  evidence  of  Procopius,  who  calls 
them  Friesians,  it  would  seem  natural  to  refer  them  to 
the  districts  of  Holland  and  ^orth  Germany,  between 
the  mouths  of  the  Eider  and  the  Rhine."  The  rela- 
tionship subsisting  between  the  Saxons,  Hollanders,  and 
Friesians,  is  perhaps  more  strikingly  illustrated  by  lin- 

*  Pearson's  "  England  in  the  Middle  Ages." 


22  HISTOKY  OF  THE   EI^GLISH   LAIs^GUAGE. 

guistic  evidence.  Among  all  the  tongues  of  Europe, 
none  display  so  marked  a  resemblance  to  the  English  as 
the  Ilollandish  or  Dutch,  the  Low  German,  and  tlie 
Friesian.  This  is  rendered  obvious  by  noticing  the 
many  points  of  resemblance  in  pronunciation  and  in 
vocabulary,  which  exist  between  the  Friesian  and  the 
South-English,  of  which  Anglo-Saxon  constitutes  the 
basis. 

The  Saxons  extended  their  dominion  over  the  south 
and  the  west  of  t^ie  island,  peaceably  coalescing  with 
^the  Angles  in  the  east,  from  whom  they  were  sepa- 
rated by  no  differences  either  in  language  or  in  civiliza- 
tion so  marked  as  to  prevent  their  harmonious  blending. 
Thus  all  England  passed  into  the  possession  of  a  new 
population,  except  th^  inaccessible  northern  and  western 
portions.  Mercia,  or  the  March  (boundary)  country, 
formed  the  boundary  line  of  the  great  nationalities 
which  divided  this  fair  land.* 

The  Anglo-Saxon  Language. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  evident  that  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  was  a  composite  tongue,  formed  by  the  gradual 

*  The  settlements  of  Britain  by  tlie  Germanic  invaders  are  said  to 
have  occurred  in  the  following  order  : 

First.  Jutes,  under  Hengist  and  Horsa,  who  occupied  Kent  and 
the  Isle  of  Wight  and  a  part  of  Hampshire,  in  A.  D.  449  or  450. 
Second.  The  first  division  of  the  Saxons,  under  Ella  and  Cissa, 
settled  in  Sussex  in  477.  Third.  The  second  body  of  Saxons,  under 
Cerdic  and  Cymric,  in  Wessex  in  495.  Fourth.  The  third  body  of 
Saxons  in  Essex  in  530.  Fifth.  First  division  of  the  Angles  in  the 
Kingdom  of  East  Anglia  (Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Cambridgeshire,  and 
parts  of  Lincolnshire  and  Northamptonshire).  Sixth.  The  second  di- 
vision of  the  Angles  in  the  kingdom  of  Beornicia  (situated  between 
the  Tweed  and  the  Frith  of  Forth),  in  547. — Morris's  Outlines  of  Eng- 
lish Accidence. 


AKGLO-SAXOiq-  PERIO 

blending  of  many  kindred  dialects,  principl 
into  the  island  between  the  middle  of  the  lifth  an( 
middle  of  the  sixth  century,  with  a  copious  infusion  of 
Latin  derived  from  the  Romanized  Britons.  The  Anglo- 
Saxon  was  an  inflected  or  synthetic  language,  like  the 
Latin  and  the  Greek.  Although  at  the  epoch  of  its  most 
flourishing  literature,  its  rich  inflectional  system  had  been 
somewhat  reduced  by  the  action  of  sound  decay,  a  result 
which  may  be  partly  attributed  to  the  Danisli  invasions, 
it  retained  a  full  set  of  terminations  and  great  freedom 
of  arrangement.  With  respect  to  its  grammar,  it  is  suf- 
ficient to  say  that  it  had  five  cases — that  the  article,  noun, 
adjective,  and  pronoun  were  declinable,  having  difterent 
forms  for  three  genders  and  two  numbers :  the  adjec- 
tive, as  in  German,  had  two  inflections,  the  definite  and 
the  indefinite;  the  verb  had  four  moods,  the  indicative, 
subjunctive,  imperative,  and  infinitive,  and .  but  two 
tenses,  the  present  or  indefinite,  used  also  as  a  future,  and 
the  past.  There  were  also  compound  tenses  in  the  active 
voice,  and  a  passive  voice,  formed,  as  in  English,  by  aux- 
iliaries. The  auxiliaries  usually  retained  their  force  as 
independent  verbs,  and  were  not  employed  as  mere  in- 
dications of  time,  as  in  English.  The  Anglo-Saxon  had 
ten  forms  for  the  article,  five  for  the  noun,  and  ten 
terminations  for  the  positive  degree  of  adjectives ;  the 
irregular  verbs  had  thirteen  endings,  without  including 
the  inflected  cases  of  the  participles. 

In  all  the  loftier  attributes  of  speech  the  Anglo-Saxon 
was  the  peer  of  any  of  the  cognate  Gothic  languages. 
Though  inferior  to  the  Icelandic  in  the  mere  devices 
of  rhetoric,  in  metrical  and  rhythmical  appliances,  it  was 
perfectly  adequate  to  the  expression  of  the  varied  neces- 
sities of  humanity.     Its  native  roots  possessed  a  remark- 


24  HISTORY   OF  THE  EITGLISH  LAInTGUAGE. 

able  facility  of  composition  and  derivation,  though  the 
number  of  its  primitive  and  simple  words  v/as  so  great 
that  there  was  less  occasion  for  composition  than  in  most 
of  the  related  languages. 

This  characteristic,  together  with  the  mode  of  inflec- 
tion employed,  will  explain  in  a  measure  the  large 
monosyllabic  element  existing  in  Anglo-Saxon,  and  con- 
sequently in  English ;  a  peculiarity  of  our  tongue  which 
has  been  forcibly  illustrated  by  the  late  Dr.  Joseph 
Addison  Alexander,  of  Princeton,  in  the  sonnet  here 
quoted.  It  will  be  observed  that  nearly  every  word  is 
of  Anglo-Saxon  derivation,  and  that  those  consisting  of 
two  syllables  are  usually  enunciated  as  one. 

Think  not  that  strength  lies  in  the  big,  round  word. 

Or  that  the  brief  and  plain  must  needs  be  weak. 
To  whom  can  this  be  true  who  once  has  heard 

The  cry  for  help,  the  tongue  that  all  men  speak. 
When  want,  or  fear,  or  woe,  is  in  the  throat. 

So  that  each  word  gasped  out  is  like  a  shriek 
Pressed  from  the  sore  heart,  or  a  strange,  wild  note. 

Sung  by  some  fay  or  fiend?    There  is  a  strength, 
Which  dies  if  stretched  too  far,  or  spun  too  fine. 

Which  has  more  height  than  breadth,  more  depth  than  length; 
Let  but  this  force  of  thought  and  speech  be  mine, 

And  he  that  will,  may  take  the  sleek,  fat  phrase, 
Which  glows,  but  burns  not,  though  it  beam  and  shine. 

Light,  but  no  heat— a  flash,  but  not  a  blaze. 

The.  A  ug1  o-Saxon  language  attained  its  pre-eminence 
during  the  reign  of  King  Alfred  (870-901).  Under  the 
fostering  care  of  this  royal  scholar,  the  speech  of  Wes- 
sex  attained  an  ascendency  among  the  dialects  of  Eng- 
land, similar  to  that  which  the  Attic  acquired  among 
the  dialects  of  Hellas.  Wessex  became  the  centre  of 
culture,  and  its  language  advanced  rapidly  to  the  position 


AN"GLO-SAXOI^  PERIOD.  25 

of  a  classic  and  dominant  speech.  The  Anglian  or 
IN'orthumbrian  dialect,  which  at  one  time  contained  the 
germs  of  a  vigorous  and  hopeful  literature,  succumbed 
to  the  fearful  desolations  of  the  Danes,  the  destruction 
of  the  monasteries,  and  the  consequent  extinction  of 
learning,  and  is  lost  to  sight,  until  it  reappears  in  the 
fifteenth  century  as  the  national  speech  of  Scotland 
(Lowland  Scotch). 

Under  the  reign  of  Alfred,  the  Danes  are  expelled, 
comparative  security  is  restored,  and  the  literary  su- 
premacy passes  over  to  the  tongue  of  the  West  Saxons. 
In  this  language  was  composed  the  greatest  and  the  most 
cultivated  portion  of  Saxon  literature.  Its  grammar  is 
characterized  by  regularity  and  uniformity,  and  its  vo- 
cabulary is  not  affected  by  Scandinavian  or  Danish  terms. 
The  development  of  the  JSTorthumbrian  dialect  was  ar- 
rested by  the  causes  already  indicated  ;  hence  its  liter- 
ary memorials  are  few.  It  possesses  inflections  and 
words  which  are  not  contained  in  the  Wessex  dialect, 
and  the  number  of  Danish  terms  is  very  few.  These 
are  the  two  forms  in  which  the  Anglo-Saxon  existed  be- 
fore the  Korman  conquest,  1066. 

The  literature  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  has  exerted  no  de- 
termining inlinence  either  upon  the  form  or  the  spirit  of 
English  literature.  The  English  Language  and  English 
literature  were  new  creations,  and  the  latter  has  derived 
none  of  its  distinctive  features  from  Anglp-Saxon  proto- 
types. The  influence  of  Anglo-Saxon  upon  English  is 
confined  to  the  vocabulary  and  the  grammar,  and  does 
not  seriously  affect  the  literature.  Hence  the  discussion 
of  its  literary  memorials  is  somewhat  irrelevant  in  this 
work,  the  intention  of  which  is  to  trace  the  growth  of  the 
English  language,  and  not  the  history  of  English  liter- 

2 


26  HISTORY  OF  THE  EKGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

ature,  except  so  far  as  it  illustrates  the  mutations  and 
vicissitudes  of  the  tongue.  The  consideration  of  this 
subject  properly  pertains  to  professed  treatises  upon  Eng- 
lish literature. 

The  Anglo-Saxons  never  attained  the  loftiest  excel- 
lence either  in  poetry  or  prose.  The  poetical  composi- 
tions are  generally  of  a  religious  character,  and,  while 
destitute  of  inventive  or  creative  power,  are  pure  and 
elevated  in  tone  and  sentiment,  though  pervaded  by  that ' 
exuberance  of  metaphor,  and  gorgeousness  of  imagery 
which  characterize  the  early  literature  of  every  people. 
Metre*  and  rhyme  were  not  essential  features  of  their 
versification,  though  both  were  occasionally  employed, 
and  the  introduction  of  rhyme  into  English  poetry  dates 
from  Anglo-Saxon  times.  The  distinctive  feature  of 
Anglo-Saxon  poetry  was  alliteration,  which  it  possessed 
in  common  with  the  Old  JS^orthern  or  Icelandic.  The 
rule  which  determined  its  employment,  stated  in  general 
terras,  is  as  follows :  "  In  each  couplet,  three  emphatic 
words  (or  by  poetic  license  accented  syllables),  two  in 
the  first  line,  and  one  in  the  second,  must  commence 
with  the  same  consonant,  or  with  vowels,  in  which  case 
the  initial  letters  might  be,  and  generally  were,  differ- 
ent." 

The  following  lines  will  illustrate  the  nature  of  allit- 
eration, both  in  vowels  and  consonants : 
Pilgrymes  and  palmeres, 
Plighten  hem  togidere, 

*  The  metrical  system  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  was  probably  affected 
by  the  influence  of  Icelandic  models,  as  it  possesses  some  metrical 
features  in  common  with  the  Icelandic.  For  example,  the  Icelandic 
tended  to  break  down  the  Anglo-Saxon  alliteration,  and  thus  to  pre- 
pare the  way  for  the  introduction  of  rhyme. 


ANGLO-SAXONS"   PEKIOD.  -  27 

For  to  ^eken  ^eint  Jame, 
And  seintes  at  Rome. 
They  ^^enten  forth  in  hire  wej^ 
With  many  wi^Q  tales, 
And  hadden  /eve  to  /yen, 
Al  hire  Hi  after. 

These  lines  are  specimens  of  alliteration  upon  a 
vowel : 

And  ^'n obedient  to  ben  i^nderdone 
Of  any  lif  lyvynge, 
With  inwit  and  with  c»utwit 
Pmagynen  and  studie. 

In  historical  composition,  the  Anglo-Saxons  appear  to 
have  been  remarkably  deficient,  presenting  in  this  regard 
a  strange  contrast  to  their  brilliant  ]N"orman  successors, 
who  treasm*ed  up  the  records  of  their  ancestral  greatness 
with  the  same  zealous  guardianship  that  the  Greeks  and 
Latins  cherished  the  legends  of  heroes  and  demi-gods. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  chronicle,  which  terminates  A.  D.  1154, 
is  a  monotonous  recital  of  unimportant  incidents,  devoid 
of  constructive  skill,  or  graphic  delineation.  The  genial 
climate  and  generous  soil  of  Angleland  enervated  the 
martial  spirit  of  the  Teutonic  barbarians ;  and  after  they 
had  subdued  the  Kelts,  the  primitive  inhabitants,  they 
lapsed  into  inglorious  quietude,  rarely  rousing  themselves 
to  vigorous  effort,  except  when  called  upon  to  repel 
the  aggressions  of  Scandinavian  hordes.  Witli  the 
death  of  Alfred,  the  greatness  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
commonwealth  began  to  wane,  literature  declined, 
social  and  artistic  culture  deteriorated,  and  only  the 
infusion  of  a  vigorous  and  buoyant  civilization  could 
avert  the  doom  that  seemed  impending  over  the  Saxon 


28  HISTORY   OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

State.     Whence  this  restoring  element  was  to  come  we 
shall  learn  hereafter. 

When  the  Anglo-Saxons  invaded  Britain,  the  Eo- 
mans,  who  had  held  the  island  since  the  reign  of  Yes- 
pasian,*  had  been  recently  called  away  from  this  outpost 
of  the  Empire  to  the  defence  of  their  own  capital 
against  the  formidable  encroachments  of  the  northern 
barbarians.  Hence  the  country  reverted  to  the  pos- 
session of  its  ancient  inhabitants,  who  enjoyed  a  brief 
interval  of  freedom  before  they  were  transferred  to  the 
dominion  of  their  new  sovereigns.  There  is  no  historical 
foundation  for  the  prevalent  opinion  that  the  Kelts 
were  gradually  extirpated  by  their  Saxon  conquerours. 
The  large  number  of  familiar  terms  in  the  vocabulary 
of  the  English  language,  of  Keltic  origin,  the  names  of 
rivers,  mountains,  hills,  and  towns,  which  have  descend- 
ed from  the  same  source,  ought  effectually  to  dispel  the 
popular  impression  that  the  Keltic  nation  was  entirely 
exterminated  by  the  Teutonic  tribes.  The  Saxon  con-t 
quest  was  rather  conservative  than  destructive  in  its 
tendencies.  The  maritime  life  of  the  Saxons  naturally 
inclined  them  to  the  sea,  and  consequently  we  discover 
that  the  largest  Saxon  settlements  are  found  in  maritime 
districts.  For  .a  long  time  the  Saxons  were  averse  to 
city  life,  and  restricted  themselves  to  those  regions 
•which  the  sea  washes.     Still  a  certain  degree  of  contact 


*  Tlie  Roman  invasions  of  Britain  were  commenced  by  Julius 
Caesar,  B.  C.  55.  His  invasion  accomplished  no  substantial  result, 
and  it  was  not  until  repeated  contests,  continued  during  several 
reigns,  tliat  tlie  island  was  rendered  subject  to  Rome.  The  con- 
quest was  completed  under  the  beneficent  administration  of  Agri- 
cola,  A.  D.  78-86.  The  Roman  legions  were  finally  withdrawn  in 
the  reign  of  Valentinian,  A.  D.  447. 


AKGLO-SAXOJq-   PERIOD.  29 

and  admixture  with  the  native  population  was  inevitable. 
"  If  the  Roman  towns  in  some  cases  fell  into  decay,  the 
poverty  of  a  war-stricken  people,  the  decline  of  com- 
merce and  of  the  arts,  will  account  for  it.  But  the  days 
of  the  great  Roman  feasts  were  still  celebrated  under 
Christian  titles,  the  Roman  colleges  of  trade  were  con- 
tinued as  guilds.  Roman  local  names  were  preserved 
by  the  conqiierours,  as  they  found  them.  Roman  titles, 
duke  and  count,  were  assumed  by  the  Saxon  chiefs. 
Roman  law  has  formed  the  basis  of  the  Saxon  family 
system,  and  of  the  laws  of  property.  The  Saxon  con- 
quest was  a  change  of  the  highest  moment,  no  doubt, 
but  it  did  not  break  up  society ;  it  only  added  a  new 
element  to  what  it  found.  The  Saxon  State  was  built 
upon  the  ruins  of  the  past."* 

A^The  Saxons,  however,  were  not  permitted  to  enjoy  in 
tranquil  security  the  possession  of  their  conquered  terri- 
tory. About  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century, 
commenced  the  fearful  incursions  of  the  Scandinavian 
pirates,  who  were  the  terror  and  the  scourge  of  Europe, 
and  from  whose  depredations  immunity  was  generally 
secured  by  exorbitant  ransom,  or  enormous  concessions. 
One  branch  of  the  !N"orthmen  or  N'orsemen  desolated 
the  kingdom  of  Gaul,  and  obtained  from  that  imbecile 
monarch,  Charles  the  Simple,  the  cession  of  one  of  his 
fairest  provinces,  Keustria,  known  henceforth  in  history 
as  I^ormandy,  from  its  new  inhabitants.  *  Of  them  we 
shall  have  more  to  say  directly,  as  they  play  a  brilliant 
part  in  the  history  of  the  English  language  and  the  Eng- 
lish race.  Another  division  sailed  towards  Angleland, 
and  thus  laid  the  foundations  for  the  conquests  of  their 

*  Pearson's  "England  in  tlie  Middle  Ages."  ^ 


30  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LAN-QUAGE. 

kinsmen  in  the  ages  to  come.  This  was  the  first  great 
act  of  the  Scandinavian  races,  in  the  drama  of  European 
history. 

The  Danish  invasions  and  occupations  of  England 
may  be  stated  in  the  following  order : 

In  787  the  ISTorthmen  *  appeared,  and  made  an  attack 
upon  the  coast  of  Dorsetshire.  In  832  the  Danes 
ravaged  Sheppey  in  Kent.  In  833  thirty-five  ships 
came  to  Charmouth  in  Dorsetshire,  and  Egbert  was  de- 
feated by  the  Danes.  In  835  the  Welsh  and  Danes 
were  defeated  by  Egbert  at  Hengestesdun.  In  855  the 
Danes  wintered  in  Sheppey.  In  866  they  wintered  in 
East  Anglia.  In  868  they  got  into  Mercia  as  far  as 
Nottingham,  and  in  870  they  invaded  East  Anglia.  In 
871  the  eastern  part  of  Wessex  was  invaded  by  the 
Danes.  In  874  the  Danes  entered  Lincolnshire.  In  876 
they  made  settlements  in  Korthumbria.  In  878  Alfred, 
King  of  Wessex,  concluded  a  treaty  with  Gutlirum,  the 
Danish  chief,  and  formally  ceded  to  the  invaders  all 
Northumberland  and  East  Anglia,  the  greater  part  of 
Essex,  and  the  northeast  of  Mercia.  In  991  the  Nor- 
wegians invaded  the  eastern  coast  of  England,  and 
plundered  Ipswich ;  they  were  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Maldon.  Before  1000  the  Danes  had  settled  in  Cumber- 
land. In  1013  Svein,  King  of  Denmark,  conquered 
England ;  and  from  1013  to  1042  a  Danish  dynasty  ruled 
over  England.  In  1042  the  government  reverted  to  the 
possession  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  who  retained  it  until 
the  Norman  Conquest,  1066.      The  free  spirit  of  the 

*  The  terms  Northmen,  Norsemen,  or  Scandinavians,  are  the 
general  designations  of  the  inhabitants  of  Scandinavia  (Norway, 
Sweden,  and  Denmark),  who  at  that  time  were  called  Danes,  with- 
out distinction. 


AN-QLO-SAXON"   PERIOD.  31 

Danes  exercised  a  salutary  influence  upon  the  political 
and  social  condition  of  the  Saxon  State. 

Under  the  paternal  government  of  Canute,  the  Danish 
aristocracy  coalesced  with  the  Anglo-Saxon ;  the  differ- 
ence  in  languag^e  and  race  was  not  so  great  as  to  render 
union  impossible,  and  when  the  government  was  restored 
to  the  Anglo-Saxons,  upon  the  overthrow  of  the  Danish 
power,  thoie~Danes  who  desired  it  retained  undisturbed 
possession  of  their  homes,  and  became  subjects  of  the 
Saxon  rulers. 


CHAPTEE  11. 

THE   NORMAN   CONQUEST. 

The  battle  of  Hastings,  fought  October  14,  1066, 
transferred  the  kingdom  of  England  to  the  government 
of  William,  Duke  of  Normandy,  and  his  followers.  We 
have  already  learned  that  the  Kormans  were  originally 
a  branch  of  the  great  Scandinavian  farailj^  to  which  the 
Danes  belonged,  and  that  in  the  tenth  century  they  had 
wrested  from  the  King. of  Erance  one  of  his  loveliest 
provinces.  Henceforth  their  character  undergoes  an  en- 
tire transformation.  Laying  aside  their  natural  rude- 
ness, and  discarding  their  Scandinavian  dialect,  they 
entered  boldly  upon  that  wonderful  career  which  was  to 
make  them  the  foremost  among  the  nations  of  mediosval 
history.  Possessed  of  a  susceptible  and  versatile  genius, 
tliey  rapidly  advanced  from  a  condition  of  barbarism  to 
comparative  civilization  and  enlightenment.  They  read- 
ily acquired  the  speech  of  the  land,  a  language  formed 
by  the  decay  and  corruption  of  the  Lingua  ItuUica^  or 
popularjiatin,  the  colloquial  dialect  of  the  Empire,  which 
had  been  disseminated  throughout  the  Roman  provinces 
by  the  legionaries,  the  tradesmen,  and  the  colonists.  In 
Erance  it  had  assumed  two  separate  forms,  distinguished 
by  the  word  for  yes  in  each  tongue,  a  manner  of  desig- 
nating languages  by  no  means  uncommon  in  the  Middle 


THE   NORMAiq-   CONQUEST.  33 

ages.  These  are  known  in  history  and  in  philology  as 
the  Langiie  D'Oc,  Or  Provencal,  the  tongue  of  south 
France,  once  the  favourite  medium  of  .the  Troubadours ; 
the  Langue  D'Oyl,  or  northern  French,  with  which  the 
!Norman  French  is  identified.  The  river  Loire  may  be 
considered  the  dividing  line  between  them.  The  south- 
ern French,  or  Langue  D'Oc,  exhibits  a  marked  resem- 
blance to  the  dialects  of  Spain;  the  northern  French, 
or  Langue  D'Oyl,  which  extends  from  the  Loire  to  the 
boundaries  of  Flanders,  differs  in  certain  respects  from 
the  Langue  D'Oc.  First.  It  was  of  later  origin,  south- 
ern Gaul  having  been  conquered  at  an  earlier  period  by 
the  Romans.  Second.  It  contains  a  Germanic  element, 
as  by  its  geographical  position  it  is  brought  into  contact 
with  the  Gothic  languages  of  Holland  and  Germany, 
and  northern  France  was  colonized  by  Teutonic  tribes 
in  the  fifth  century.  This  Germanic  element  is  quite 
important.  Third.  It  contains  a  Scandinavian  element, 
as  the  Normans  retained  some  of  their  original  words 
after  they  had  abandoned  their  former  tongue.  Fourth. 
It  has  a  number  of  Keltic  w^ords,  some  of  which  were 
introduced  into  England  by  the  Kormans,  and  are  per- 
petuated in  the  English  language. 

The  northern  French  assumed  several  dialectic  forms, 
determined  by  the  phonetic  tendencies  of  the  dilierent 
tribes  and  nationalities  among  whom  it  was  spoken.. 
These  were  the  dialects  of  Picardy,  of  N^ormandy,  of  the 
Isle  of  France,  and  of  Burgundy.  They  were  all  origi- 
nally upon  a  footing  of  linguistic  equality,  but  during  the 
fourteenth  century  the  speech  of  the  Isle  of  France  at- 
tained tlie  pre-eminence,  in  consequence  of  the  political 
ascendency  acquired  by  those  who  spoke  it,  and  became 
the  standard  or  literary  language.  The  others  descended 
2* 


34  HISTORY   OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

to  the  level  of  mere  patois,  or  uncultivated  dialects.*  It 
is  with  the  dialect  of  Normandy  that  we  are  directly 
concerned,  as  the  literary  French  exercised  no  specific 
influence  upon  English  until  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 
Tlie  Norman  French  wasj  as  we  have  already  seen,  a 
Franco-Koman  dialect,  formed  from  the  rude  Latin  of 
Gaul,  cohtaihing  a  strong  German  admixture,  as  well  as 
a  Scandinavian  and  a  Celtic  element.  It  was  character- 
ized by  great  simplicity  of  form  and  structure,  a  feature 
which  is  conspicuously  displayed  in  its  preference  for 
single  vowels  and  single  consonants.  Its  pronimciation 
is  supposed  to  have  borne  a  strong  resemblance  to  that 
of  Anglo-Saxon,  which  may  perha*ps  serve  to  explain  the 
fusion  of  two  tongues  so  essentially  different,  a  fact  un- 
paralleled in  linguistic  history. 

The  Norman  tongue  was  not  totally  unknown  in 
England  before  the  Conquest.  This  will  appear  from 
the  following  historical  facts.     We  discover  repeated  in- 


*  As  patois  and  dialect  will  occur  again  in  this  work,  and  as  they 
are  used  frequently  as  synonymous  or  convertible  terms,  it  may  be. 
well  to  explain  the  difference  before  proceeding  further.     A  dialect, . 
properly  defined,  is  one  of  several  independent  and  equal  forms  of  a  v/' 
language,     fn  point  of  literary  merit  they  may  be  peers.     Thus,  the 
speech  of  Burgundy,  Picardy,  Normandy,  and  the  Isle  of  France 
were  cognate  and  equal  dialects  of  the  Langue  D'Oyl,  until  the  last 
secured  the  ascendency,  and  the  others  sunk  to  mere  patois.     Dia- 
lects, accurately  understood,  exist  in  the  earlier  stages  of  a  language, 
before  superior  culture  or  political  predominance  has  elevated  one 
tribe  or  nationality  and  its  language  above  tlie  others.     Patois,  then,^ 
are  those  unfortunate  dialects  which,  excelled  by  their  competitors 
in  the  struggle  for  literary  honours,  have  become  the  speech  of  the  \^ 
peasant  and  the  brogue  of  the  rural  districts. 

For  accurate  and  detailed  information  upon  these  points,  the  stu- 
dent is  referred  to  Brachet's  "  Historical  Grammar  of  French ; "  Lit- 
tre's  "  History  of  the  French  Language,"  in  his  magnificent  dictionary. 


THE   NOKMAN   CONQUEST.  35 

stances  of  intercourse  between  the  two  countries  before 
tins  time  :  First.  The  residence  in  England  of  Louis 
Outremer.  Second.  Ethelred  II.  married  Emma, 
daughter  of  Richard,  Duke  of  Normandy,  and  the  two 
children  were  sent  to  ]^ormandy  to  be  educated.  Third. 
Edward  the  Confessor  possessed  a  peculiar  predilection 
for  the  Normans ;  during  his  reign  the  offices  of  state 
were  filled  by  Norman  favourites ;  the  Norman  tongue 
was  cultivated  in  England,  and  French  manners  and 
customs  became  fashionable  among  the  higher  circles. 
He  has  been  appositely  called  the  first  of  the  Norman 
monarchs  of  England.  Fourth.  Ingulphus,  of  Croydon,- 
speaks  of  his  knowledge  of  French.  Fifth.  Harold,  the 
last  of  the  Saxon  kings,  spent  some  time  in  Normandy 
with  William.  Sixth.  William  of  Normandy  visited 
England, ^and  was  received  with  all  the  splendor  of  a 
king  by  Edward.  Seventh.  The  French  article  la,  in 
the  term  la  Drove,  occurs  in  a  deed  of  A.  D.  975. 

The  Norman  Conquest  removed  England  from  her 
isolated  position,  and  introduced  her  into  the  sphere  of 
Continental  relations.  It  appears  to  have  been  the  uni- 
form policy  of  the  Conquerour  to  leave  the  existing  laws 
and  institutions  unaltered,  and  content  himself  with 
their  rigourous  enforcement.  Notwithstanding  the  pro- 
scriptive  and  vindictive  spirit  by  which  some  of  his  meas- 
ures were  actuated,  his  administration  was  attended 
with  substantial  benefits,  and  succeeded  in  effecting  a 
political  unity  hitherto  unknown  in  England.  The 
character  and  condition  of  English  society  experienced 
a  total  transformation.  ,-  The  Normans  constituted  but  a 
small  proportion  of  the  population,  and  they  never  trans- 
ferred themselves  generally  or  in  a  body  to  England. 
But  their  political  and  social  predominance,  more  than 


3G  HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

counteracted  their  limited  numbers ;  they  rapidly  ac- 
quired all  positions  of  honour  and  emolument,  in  church 
and  state.  Norman  prelates  supplanted  the  Saxon  bishops, 
the  avenues  to  honour  and  distinction  were  closed  against 
all  but  the  adherents  of  the  Conquerour,  and  no  man 
could  attain  to  eminence  except  by  becoming,  in  speech 
and  in  manners,  a  Frenchman.  The  native  language  and 
literature,  which  had  been  deteriorating  since  the  age  of 
Alfred,  fell  into  neglect  and  decay ;  excluded  from  the 
schools,  from  the  church,  from  elegant  and  courtly  cir- 
cles, it  rapidly  declined,  though  it  never  ceased  entirely 
to  be  cultivated,  during  the  long  period  of  its  depression 
that  intervened  between  the  Conquest  and  the  time  of 
Chaucer.  It  remained  the  vernacular  tongue  of  the 
people,  who  cherished  it  all  the  more  ardently  on  account 
of  its  misfortunes,  and  in  the  cloisters  of  the  Saxon 
monks  it  was  guarded  with  assiduous  care,  and  preserved 
from  utter  literary  extinction. 

Its  productions  were  naturally  imperfect ;  nearly  all 
of  our  Anglo-Saxon  literature,  from  the  Conquest  to  the 
time  that  it  was  kindled  into  life  under  the  inspiration 
of  Chaucer,  consists  of  translations  and  paraphrases,  a 
circumstance  which  forcibly  indicates  the  absence  of 
original  genius,  and  literary  patronage.  The  decline  of 
Saxon  letters  and  learning  had  commenced  before  the 
Conquest.  It  is  true  that  this  event  greatly  accelerated 
the  process,  but  it  was  not  the  original  cause.  When  the 
I^ormans  invaded  England,  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  re- 
duced to  the  lowest  degree  of  ignorance  and  illiteracy. 

Odericus  Yitalis,  a  native  of  England,  and  almost 
contemporary  with  the  events  he  describes,  speaks  of  his 
countrymen  as  having  been  found  by  the  I^ormans,  "  a 
rustic  and  almost  illiterate  people,"  a  remark  which  ap- 


((UNIT  SE  SIT  ^ 

THE   NORMAIT   CONQUEST.  ^^^  ^       Oj&7 

plies  especially  to  the  clergy,  as  the  great 
laity  were  everywhere  illiterate.  The  Conquerour  took 
advantage  of  this  prevailing  ignorance  of  the  clergy  to 
deprive  many  of  them  of  their  benefices,  and  to  supply 
their  places  with  I^orman  favourites,  many  of  whom  were 
accomplished  scholars. 

Upon  the  whole,  it  cannot  be  affirmed  that  the  Kor- 
man  Conquest  was  unfavourable  to  the  interest  of  learn- 
ing and  of  civihzation.  "  William  himself,"  says  War- 
ton  (History  of  English  Poetry),  "patronized  and  loved 
letters.  He  filled  the  bishoprics  and  abbacies  of  England 
with  the  most  learned  of  his  countrymen,  who  had  been 
educated  at  the  University  of  Paris,  at  that  time  the 
most  flourishing  school  in  Europe.  He  placed  Lanfranc, 
Abbot  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Stephen,  at  Caen,  in  the 
See  of  Canterbury — one  of  the  most  eminent  logicians 
of  that  age.  Anselm,  an  acute  metaphysician  and  theo- 
logian, hisinmiediate  successor  in  the  same  See,  w^as  called 
from  the  government  of  the  Abbey  of  Bee  in  Normandy." 
The  speculations  of  these  eminent  dialecticians  had 
"  almost  reconstructed  philosophical  opinion  in  Europe." 
William  and  his  nobles  founded  and  endowed  some  of 
the  most  magnificent  institutions  of  learning  in  Eng- 
land, and  he  patronized  liberally  all  enterprises  designed 
to  promote  the  interests  of  culture,  or  to  foster  and  de- 
velop a  love  for  letters.  He  set  the  example  himself,  by 
educating  his  own  son,  Henry  Beauclerc,  with  the  utmost 
care,  in  all  the  sciences  known  and  studied  in  this  age 
of  comparative  ignorance.  Many  of  his  successors 
manifested  the  same  respect  for  learning ;  many  of  them 
had  received  the  most  thorough  education  which  was 
then  afforded.  Still,  whatever  learning  existed,  was  in 
a  great  degree  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  clergy,  and 


38  IIISTOIIY  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

but  few  even  of  the  nobility  seem  to  have  been  versed 
in  the  scholarship  of  the  age.  The  Latin  tongue,  which 
was  then  the  general  medium  of  all  knowledge,  was  un- 
known except  to  the  clergy,  and  to  such  of  the  laity  as 
had  embraced  the  profession  of  teaching. 

There  long  existed  a  prevalent  misapprehension  that 
the  Norman  Conquerour  endeavoured  to  force  upon  his 
new  subjects  the  language  of  Normandy,  and  thus  to 
effect  the  total  abolition  of  the  Saxon  speech.  Hume 
tells  us  that  "  the  Conquerour  entertained  the  diflficnlt 
project  of  abolishing  the  English  language,  and  for  that 
purpose  he  ordered  that,  in  all  schools  throughout  the 
kingdom,  the  youth  should  be  instructed  in  the  French 
tongue.  The  pleadings  in  the  supreme  court  of  judica- 
ture were  in  French,  the  deeds  were  drawn  in  the  same 
language,  the  laws  were  composed  in  the  same  idiom." 
This  statement  must  be  received  with  decided  modifica- 
tions. It  is  true  that  French  was  the  language  of  the 
court  and  of  genteel  society  from  infancy ;  that  boys  in 
the  grammar  schools  were  taught  to  translate  and  con- 
strue tlieir  Latin  into  French ;  and  so  fashionable  had  the 
use  of  it  become  that  even  rustic  and  uncouth  persons 
endeavoured  to  speak  French,  in  order  "  to  be  thought 
something  of,"  into  such  neglect  and  contempt  had  the 
Saxon  speech  fallen.  The  mass  of  the  people,  however, 
adhered  pertinaciously  to  their  native  speech.  With 
regard  to  the  remainder  of  this  assertion,  so  general  in 
its  character,  it  may  be  said  that  later  and  more  accurate 
liistorical  researches  have  show^n  that  there  is  no  one 
example  of  any  pleadings  in  the  court  of  judicature  in 
French,  of  any  deeds  or  charters  drawm  in  the  same 
language,  or  any  laws  composed  in  that  idiom,  until  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.     "What  William  found  he  kept; 


THE   NORMAN    CONQUEST.  39 

like  his  predecessors^  his  charters  were  written  either  in 
English  or  Latin,  though  tha  latter  gradually  prevailed. 
Yet  the  English  continued  in  constant  use,  and  the  larst 
example  of  its  employment  is  found  also  in  the  reign 
onienry  HI.,  when  we  had  the  first  employment  of 
tiie  Fi-ench  tongue.  *  *  *  *  ]^o  doubt  the  Ro- 
mance diaTect  prevailed  greatly  in  England  in  later 
times,  but  for  this  we  cannot  hold  William  responsi- 
ble, and  every  letter,  every  writ,  every  missive  which 
he  addressed  to  his  trusty  men — his  Frenchmen  or 
his  Englishmen— was  in  Latin  or  in  English.  It  was 
not  until  the  conclusion  of  Henry  III.'s  reign  that 
the  x^orman-French  appears  in  the  monuments  of 
our  jurisprudence  and  diplomacy.""^"  He  even  under- 
took to  learn  the  language  of  his  Saxon  subjects,  in 
order  that  he  might  be  qualified  to  decide  suits  at 
law,  to  which  they  were  parties.  The  difficulty  of  the 
undertaking,  however,  induced  him  to  abandon  it ;  the 
Norman  lords  could  not  acquire  the  correct  pronuncia- 
tion of  Saxon  words,  they  mutilated  its  local  names,t  and 
their  sovereign  probably  experienced  the  same  difficulty. 
There  is  no  historical  evidence  whatever^  for  the  asser- 
tion so  frequently  repeated,  that  the  IN'orman  Conquer- 
our  designed~the  destruction  of  the  Saxon  tongue ;  such 
a  result  would  have  been  unattainable  except  by  the  ex- 
tirpation of  the  race  who  spoke  it ;  and  the  decline  and 
neglect  of  Saxon  speech  and  Saxon  letters  were  rather 
accelerated  than  directly  produced  by  the  Conquest; 
they  did  not  proceed  from  deliberate  policy,  or  royal  in- 
terdiction ;  the  game  result  was  inevitable  in  any  event, 
even  if  the  [N^ormans  had  never  set  foot^in  England. 

*  Palgrave's  "England  and  Normandy." 

f  For  example,  they  pronounced  Lincoln,  Nicole. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   INFLUENCE   OF   THE   NOEMAN   CONQUEST   UPON   THE 
ANGLO-SAXON    TONGUE. 

The  decline  of  Anglo-Saxon  speech  and  literature 
had  commenced,  as  we  have  learned,  long  before  the  era 
of  the  Conquest.  The  first  perceptible  effect  of  !N^or- 
man-French  npon  Anglo-Saxon  was  to  impart  a  stimulus 
to  that  process  of  decomposition  or  phonetic  decay,* 

*  Phonetic  decay  is  that  process  of  decomposition  or  disintegration 
which  is  ever  active  in  language,  but  which  is  more  violent  in  its 

/operations  at  some  periods  than  at  others.  It  is  produced  by  vocal 
relaxation,  careless  and  indistinct  pronunciation,  such  as  we  habitu- 
ally listen  to,  the  slurring  over  or  suppressing  of  syllables,  the 
dropping  of  consonants  between  two  vowels,  the  abbreviation  and 
mutilation  of  long  words,  in  order  to  avoid  the  trouble  of  enunciat- 
ing them  clearly ;  in  a  word,  it  comprehends  all  those  expedients  to 
which  we  unconsciously  resort,  in  order  to  economize  the  breath ;  it 
is  the  practical  or  utilitarian  element  in  speech,  and  by  its  agency 
many  of  the  most  important  transmutations  of  language  have  been 
effected.  Familiar  examples  of  it  are,  don't  for  do  not,  shan't  for 
shall  not,  can't  for  cannot,  etc.  The  greater  part  of  the  changes  that 
occurred  in  the  transition  of  Saxon  into  English,  are  attributable  to 
its  agency. 

Thus  :  A.  S.  liafoc  in      English  became  hawk. 


daeg    in 
sprecan  in 
morgen  in 
cyning  in 
hltiford  in 
saelig  in 


day. 

speak. 

morrow. 

king. 

lord. 

silly. 


INFLUENCE   OF  THE   NOEMAN   CONQUEST. 


41 


which  had  already  begun  to  assail  the  integrity  of  the 
tongue,  and  to  transmute  it  from  an  inflected  or  synthetic 
language  to   an  uninflected   or  analytic   speech.     Had 
there  been  no  Norman   Conquest,  it  is  probable  that 
Saxon  would  have  experienced  a  decided  simplification 
of  structure,  such  as  nearly  all  the  languages  of  the  Low 
Gerraan^tock  have  undergone.     This  had  been  already 
partially  accomplished  in  the  north  and  east  of  England 
by  the  influence  of  the  Danish  invasions.     The  inherent 
tendency  of  all  languages  to  simplification  of  structure,~A 
would  in  the  course  of  time  have  produced  this  result,     ) 
but  without  the  Conquest,  it  would  have  been  much    / 
more  gradual,  and  by  no  means  so  complete.     The  first  / 
perceptible  change  produced  by  the  Conquest  eflected  \ 
the  orthography ;    the  vocabulary  received  no  decided 
modification  until  a  much  later  period.     The  Korman- 
French,  for  a  century  after  the  occupation  of  England, 
experienced  no  important  change;  its  orthography  and 
some  of  its  forms  were  slightly  altered,  but  it  remained 
essentially  unimpaired  until  a  subsequent  period. 

Latin,  as  was  the  case  everywhere  throughout  Europe 
during  the  dark  and  middle  ages,  continued  to  be  the  ( 
dialect  of  the  Church  and  of  learning  ;  French  the  speech 
of  the  foreignera,;„wJiile  the  mass  of  the  native  popula- 
tion retained  with  invincible  tenacity  their  vernacular 
tongue.     The  fact  that  it  had  ceased  to  be  generally  cul- 


A.  S.  wif-man  in  Englisli  became  woman. 


Eofor-wick  in 
lilsefdige  in 
bren-ston  in 
nawiht  in 
secgan  in 
angnaegele  in 


York. 

lady. 

brimstone-burnstone. 

nought. 

say.  [the  nail. 

hangnail,— a  sore  under 


42  HISTORY  OF  THE   EITGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

tivated,  greatly  facilitated  the  process  of  phonetic  decay, 
and  consequent  simplification  of  structure.  The  con- 
servative influence  of  culture  no  longer  restrained  or 
retarded  its  action ;  the  pronunciation  became  corrupt, 
terminations  disappeared,  the  constitution  of  the  speech 
was  infected  with  a  malady  which  nothing  could  relieve 
but  an  entire  reconstruction,  or  a  transmutation  of  its 
form  and  character.  There  being  no  longer  any  gener- 
ally acknowledged  standard  of  literary  excellence,  the 
language  lost  whatever  uniformity  it  had  once  possessed, 
and  the  germs  of  dialectic  divergence  began  to  be  de- 
veloped. The  two  idioms  remained  side  by  side  without 
intermingling;*  a  natural  effect  of  the  animosities 
and  distrust  which  the  Conquest  had  generated.  T  Still 
the  necessities  of  intercourse,  however  limited,  between 
conquerors  and  conquered,  gradually  produced  a  kind  of 
mixed  dialect,  composed  of  a  blending  of  French  and 
Saxon,  and  popularly  known  as  "  Marlborough  FrenchJ' 
resembling  the  Lingua  Franca  of  the  Levant,  or  the 
slang  of  Anglo-Indian  society,  utterly  confounding  the 
two  vocabularies,  and  disregarding  grammatical  forms.f 
Important  to  be  noticed  among  the  changes  produced 
by  French  influence  are  the  following :  C  before  the 
Conquest  was  pronounced  hard,  like  K.  Its  present  soft 
s-sound,  also  the  softened  forms  ch,  sh,  are  due  to  the 
French  influence  :  g  is  often  changed  to  w  and  y,  which 
is  due  to  the  same  cause ;  through  the  agency  of  the 

*  For  a  considerable  period  after  the  Conquest,  the  French  was 
probably  principally  spoken  in  the  large  towns  and  cities,  in  which 
the  Normans  mostly  resided.  The  Anglo-Saxon  prevailed  generally 
in  the  villages,  and  in  the  rural  districts,  where  comparatively  few 
Normans  congregated. 

f  Pearson's  "  England  in  the  Middle  Ages." 


IN'FLUENCE   OF  THE   NORMAif   CONQUEST.  43 

French,  tlie  th^  3d  person  singular  Indie.  Pres.,  was 
gradually  softened  to  s.  Under  the  same  influence  s, 
which  was  a  favorite  plural  termination  of  French  nouns, 
became  the  generally  received  sign  of  the  plural  in  English. 
All  the  phenomena  of  linguistic  history  may  be  clas- 
sified under  two  heads  :  dialectic  convergence,  and  dia- 
lectic divergence.  The  evolutions  of  language  are  con- 
fined to  these  processes  of  concentration  and  dispersion  * 
Thus,  for  example,  one  nationality  or  tribe  secures  a 
political  ascendency,  or  excels  its  neighbours  in  literary 
culture,  acquiring  for  its  dialect  a  pre-eminence,  as  the 
standard  of  correctness,  and  the  medium  of  literary  com- 
position. The  others,  surpassed  in  the  contest  for  the 
supremacy,  sink  down  to  mere  patois.  This  is  a  case  of 
dialectic  convergence,  and  the  dialects  of  Wessex  and  of 
the  Isle  of  France  may  be  cited  as  illustrations.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  dialect  which  has  attained  the  supe- 
riority, is  by  some  internal  convulsion,  foreign  conquest, 
or  admixture,  corrupted,  disintegrated ;  and  finally,  los- 
ing its  stability,  and  uniformity  of  structure,  resolves 
itself  into  several  dialectic  forms,  we  have  an  example  of 
divergence.  Such  a  divergence  was  effected  by  the 
breakino^  up  of  the  ancient  Latin  into  its  different  Ilo-> 
mance  descendants;  and  by  the  gradual  disruption  of 
Anglo-Saxon  produced  by  the  Conquest,  which  caused  the 
language  in  the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies, to  resolve  itself  into  thi'ee  distinct  varieties  ;  viz., 
the  ISTorthern,  the  Middle,  and  the  Southern  dialects.f 

*  Whitney's  "  Language  and  the  Study  of  Language." 
f  The  student  will  find  a  lively  and  graphic  description  bf  these 
dialects   in    Trcvisa's     translation   of    Higden's    "  Polychronicon." 
Morris's  "  Specimens  of  Early  English,"  page  338.     The  outline  of 
the  dialects  given  in  the  text,  is  condensed  from  Morris. 


44  HISTORY   OF  THE   EN'GLISH   LANGUAGE. 

» 

Their  geographical  area  was  as  follows  :  The  Northern 
dialect  was  spoken  throughout  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland, 
Northumberland,  Durham,  and  Yorkshire:  The  Mid- 
land dialect  was  spoken  in  all  the  Midland  counties,  in  the 
East  Anglian  counties,  and  in  Cumberland,  Westmore- 
land, Lancashire,  and  Shropshire.  The  Southern  dialect 
was  spoken  in  all  the  counties  south  of  the  Thames,  in 
Somersetshire,  Gloucestershire,  and  in  parts  of  Hereford- 
shire, and  Worcestershire.  These  dialects  may  be  distin- 
guished from  one  another  by  the  employment  of  different 
grammatical  forms.  A  convenient  test  for  the  illustration 
of  these  differences,  is  found  in  the  inflection  of  the 
verb  in  the  present  plural  indicative. 

The  Southern  dialect  employs  etli^  the  Midland  euy  as 
the  inflection  for  all  forms  of  the  plural  present  indica- 
tive.    The  Northern  dialect  uses  neither  of  these  forms, 
but  substitutes  es  for  etli  or  en.     The  Northern  dialect  has 
its  imperative  plural  in  es ;  the  Southern  and  Midland 
in  eth.     The  Midland  dialect  being  widely  extended, 
had  various  local  forms.     The  most  marked  of  these  are: 
the  Eastern  Midland,  spoken  in  Lincolnshire,  Norfolk, 
and  Suffolk ;  the  West  Midland,  spoken  in  Cumberland, 
Westmoreland,   Lancashire,  Cheshire,  and   Shropshire. 
The  East  Midland  conjugated  its  verb  in  tlie  present 
singular  indicative,  like  the  Southern  dialect. 
1st  person,  hop-^,  I  hope. 
2d       "         hope-s^,  thou  hopest. 
3d      "         hop-6?^A,  he  hopes. 

The  West  Midland,  like  the  Northern,  conjugated  its 
vei-b  as  follows  :  • 

1st  person,  hope. 
2d       "         hop-^5. 
3d       "         hop-^5. 


INFLUENCE   OF   THE   NORMAN   CONQUEST.  45 

There  are  other  points  of  difference  to  be  noted.  The 
Southern  dialect  frequently  substituted  v,  where  tlie 
others  used/",  as  m'w^(??'= finger.  It  preferred  the  palatal 
ch  to  the  guttural  Jc,  in  many  words;  as  riche=l^ort\\- 
ern  r^^6==  kingdom;  crouch  — croIce= cross.  It  often 
had  0  and  u  where  the  Northern  dialect  had  d  and  i,  as 
Ai^^=Korthern  hil,  ^w^= Northern  pit;  5(?7i=E'orthern 
ban=bone.  In  its  grammar,  the  Southern  dialect  was 
still  more  distinctly  marked.  First.  It  preserved  a  large 
number  of  nouns  with  plurals  in  n,  as  sterr en  =  stsivs, 
eyren  —  eggs,  kun=kme.  The  ISTorthern  dialect  had 
only  about  four  of  these  plurals,  viz. :  eghen=eyes, 
hosen,  oxen,  and  schoon= shoes.  Second.  It  kept  up  the 
genitive  of  feminine  nouns  in  e,  while  the  Northern 
dialect  employed  only  the  masculine  suffix  s,  as  in  mod- 
ern English.  Third.  Grenitive  plurals  in  ene  are  very 
common,  but  do  not  occur  at  all  in  the  Northern  dialect. 
Fourth.  Adjectives  and  demonstrative  pronouns  retained 
many  of  the  older  inflections,  and  the  definite  article 
was  inflected.  Many  pronominal  forms  were  employed 
in  South  England,  that  were  never  used  in  the  North. 
Fifth.  Where  the  Anglo-Saxon  had  infinitives  ending 
in  an  and  ian,  the  Southern  dialect  had  en  or  e  and  ie. 
This  inflection  does  not  occur  in  the  Northern  dialect. 
Sixth.  Active  participles  ended  in  inde  (ynde) ;  in  the 
North  in  ande  (and).  Seventh.  Passive  participles  re- 
tained the  old  prefix  ge  (which  was  very  common  in 
Anglo-Saxon  before  the  Conquest),  softened  do-^oi  to  i 
or  y;  in  the  North  it  was  never  used.  Eighth.  It  had 
many  verbal  inflections  that  were  unknown  to  the 
Northern  dialect,  as  st  (present  and  past  tenses),  en 
(plural  past  indicative) ;  e  (second  person  plural  past 
indicative  of  strong  verbs).     Ninth.  The  Northern  dia- 


46  HISTORY   OF  THE  El^OLISH   LANGUAGE. 

lect  had  msinj  plural  forms  of  nouns  that  were  wholly 
unknown  to  the  Southern  dialect,  as  ^r^^/ier= brethren, 
childer = children,  hend =ha.nds.  Tenth.  TA<2^  was  used 
as  a  demonstrative  pronoun,  as  in  English,  without  refer- 
ence to  gender.  In  the  Southern  dialect,  that  was  often 
tlie  neuter  of  the  definite  article.  Eleventh.  /Smne  (as, 
the  same,  this  same),  was  used  instead  of  the  Southern 
thillce,  modern  thuck,  thick.  Thir,  ther  (the  plural  of 
the  Scandinavian  article,  the,  these),  was  often  used. 
Twelfth.  The  pronominal  forms  were  very  diifferent. 
Thus,  instead  of  the  Southern  heo  {hi^  hii)=she,  this  dia- 
lect used  SCO,  scho,  the  older  form  of  our  she.  It  rejected 
the  old  plural  pronouns  of  the  third  person,  and  substi- 
tuted the  plural  article,  as  thai,  thair,  thaim  (tham), 
instead  of  hi,  {heo,  hii),  heore  {here),  heom  (hem), 
yhoures,  thairs,  as  common  then  as  now,  were  unknown 
in  the  South  of  England.  ^^=to,  was  used  as  a  sign  of 
the  infinitive;  sal  and  sud—schal  and  schuld.  The 
IN^orthern  dialect  had  numerous  Scandinavian  forms  ;  as, 
A^^7i6?i,  hence  =  Southern  A^mid/  thethen,  thence  =  South- 
ern thenne ,'  whethen,  whence  =  Southern  whennes. 

The  East  Midland  dialect  has  one  peculiarity  that  has 
not  been  found  in  the  other  dialects,  viz  :  the  coalescence 
of  pronouns  with  verbs,  and  even  with  pronouns,  as 
caldes — calde  +  es = called  them ;  dedes = dede  4-  ^5  =  put 
them;  hes=he-{-es=]iQ-\-t\\Qm.  The  West  Midland  has 
its  peculiarities,  as  A(?  =  she,  hit=its. 

For  two  or  three  centuries  after  the  Conquest,  the 
confusion  and  diversity  of  dialects,  pix^duced  by  the 
divergence  of  which  we  have  spoken,  was  so  great  that 
no  one  could  fairly  claim  to  be  considered  the  standard 
speech. 

The  Midland  dialect  was  the  most  widely  extended, 


INFLUENCE   OF   THE   NOKMAN   CONQUEST.  47 

and  the  one  which  we  might  naturally  expect  would  be- 
come the  standard  form  of  the  language.  Of  its  niany 
varieties,  the  East  Midland  was  by  far  the  most  important. 
As  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  it  be- 
gan to  receive  literary  culture,  and  had  lost  most  of  its  in- 
flections, so  as  to  become  a  simple  analytic  speech,  like 
modern  English.  This  dialect,  Anglo-Danian  in  origin 
and  character,  gradually  penetrated  further  and  further 
southward,  and  ended  by  supplanting  the  Southern  dia- 
lect for  the  higher  purposes  of  literary  composition  ; 
Trevisa  (1387)  being  the  last  writer  of  eminence  who 
employed  it.  The  steady  advance  of  this  dialect  from 
about  A.  D.  1180  until,  in  the  hands  of  Wickliffe,  Gower, 
and  Chaucer,  it  attained  the  ascendency,  is  one  of  the 
great  facts  of  our  linguistic  history."^     In  this  dialect,  not 

*  In  Puttenham's  "  Art  of  Poetry "  (1589),  Arber's  "  Reprints  of 
Early  English  Authors,"  the  student  will  find  some  very  instructive 
remarks  concerning  the  English  dialects.  Puttenham  mentions 
three  dialects — the  Northern,  Western,  and  Southern.  The  North- 
ern was  that  spoken  north  of  the  Trent  ;  the  Southern  was  that 
south  of  the  Trent,  which  was  also  the  language  of  the  court,  the 
capital,  and  the  surrounding  counties  ;  the  Western  occupied  the 
same  limits  to  which  it  is  now  confined,  Gloucestershire,  Somerset- 
shire, Wiltshire.  "  Our  maker  (poet)  therefore  at  these  dayes,  shall 
not  follow  Piers  Plowman,  nor  Gower,  nor  Lydgate,  nor  yet  Chaucer, 
for  their  language  is  now  out  of  use  with  us  ;  neither  shall  he  take 
the  termes  of  Northern-men,  such  as  they  use  in  dayly  talke, 
whether  they  be  noblemen  or  gentlemen,  or  of  their  best  clarkes, 
all  is  a  matter ;  nor  in  effect,  any  speach  used  in  England,  beyond 
the  river  of  Trent,  though  no  man  can  deny  but  that  theirs  is  the 
purer  English  Saxon  at  this  day,  yet  it  is  not  so  courtly  nor  so 
current  as  our  Southerne  English  is,  no  more  is  the  far  Westerne 
man's  speech;  ye  shall  therefore  take  the  usual  speech  of  the  Court, 
and  that  of  London,  and  the  shires  lying  about  London,  within 
sixty  miles,  and  not  much  above.  I  say  not  this,  but  that  in  every 
shire  of  England,  there  be  gentlemen  and  others  that  speake,  but 


48  HISTORY  OF  THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

only  tlie  works  of  Chaucer  and  his  illustrious  contempo- 
raries were  composed,  but  also  the  Ormulum,  and  the 
writings  of  Robert  of  Brunne  (1303),  who  clearly  fore- 
shadows the  future  of  the  English  Language,  and  the 
triumph  of  the  East  Midland  speech.  In  his  diction, 
the  Romance  and  Teutonic  elements  are  skilfully  adjusted, 
and  many  modern  idioms  and  familiar  combinations  ap- 
pear for  the  first  time,  so  that  he  is  not  inaptly  named 
the  "Patriarch  of  the  new  English."  In  the  age  of 
Chaucer,  the  East  Midland  had  become  the  speech  of 
London  and  Oxford,  and  had  probably  penetrated  south 
of  the  Thames  into  Kent  and  Surrey.  At  a  subsequent 
date,  the  Southern  dialect  had  so  far  receded  before  it, 
as  to  become  rather  Western  than  Southern,  and  the 
latter  designation  was  the  one  applied  to  the  languages 
which  had  been  adopted  as  the  standard. 

specially  write,  as  good  Soutlierne  as  we  of  Middlesex  or  Surrey  do, 
but  not  the  common  people  of  every  sliire,  to  wliom  the  gentlemen, 
and  also  their  learned  clarkes,  do  for  the  most  part  condescend,  but 
herein  we  are  already  ruled  by  th'  English  dictionaries,  and  other 
books  written  by  learned  men.' 


CHAPTEK  TV. 

TRANSITION   OF    SAXON   INTO   ENGLISH. 

I  It  has  been  stated  in  a  preceding  cliapter,  that  pho- 
netic  decay  had  made  considerable_progress  in  disin- 
tegrating  the  structure  of  the^Saxon  tongue,  and  in 
converting  it  from  an  inflected  to  an  analytic  language, 
before  the  Conquest  imparted  a  new  impulse  to  the  pro- 
cess of  decline,  and  essentially  facilitated  its  completion. 
We  must  now  consider  in  detail  the  progressive  series 
of  changes  by  which  Anglo-Saxon  lost  its  synthetic 
character,  and  was  transmuted  into  our  simple  uninflected 
English.  The  first  change  which  occurred,  affected  the 
orthography.*  This  may  be  seen  in  documents  dating 
from  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  it  con- 
sisted in  a  general  weakening  of  the  terminations  of 
words. 

First.  The  older  vowel  endings  a,  o,  u,  were  reduced 
to  e.  This  modified  the  oblique  cases  of  nouns  and  ad- 
jectives, as  well  as  the  nominative,  so  that  the  termina- 
tion 


an 

became  en. 

ra^  ru   became  re. 

as 

"        es. 

ena            "      ene. 

-     ath 

"        eth. 

on              "      en. 

um 

"        en. 

od,  ode       *^      ed,  ede. 

*  This  outline  of  inflectional  changes  is  condensed  from  Morris. 
It  may  be  found  in  his  "  Specimens  of  Early  English,"  or  his  "  Out- 
lines of  English  Accidence." 

3 


50  HISTORY  OF   THE   ENGLISH  LAN^GUAGE. 

O  or  k  h  often  changed  to  ch  soft,  and  ^  to  w  and  y. 
These  changes  took  place  between  a.  d.  1100  and  1250. 
Between  1150  and  1200,  we  note  the  following  changes. 
First.  The  indefinite  article  an,  a,  is  formed  from  the 


numeral.  It  is  often  inflected.  Second.  The  definite  arti- 
cle becomes  pe,  peo,  jpe,  {jpcit),  instead  of  se,  seo,  pwt.  It 
often  loses  the  former  inflections,  especially  in  the  femi- 
nine. We  find  pe  often  used  as  a  plural  instead  of  pa  or 
po.  Third.  JS'ominative  plurals  of  nouns  end  in  en  or  e, 
instead~o?  a  or  u,  thus  conforming  to  plurals  of  the  n 
declension.  Fourth.  Plurals  in  es  sometimes  take  the 
place  of  those  in  en  (an),  the  genitive  plural  ends  in  ene 
or  e,  and  sometimes  in  es.  Fifth.  The  dative  plural 
(originally  U7n)  becomes  e  and  en.  Sjxth.  Some  uncer- 
tainty begins  to  appear  in  the  gender  of  nouns.  Seventh. 
Adjectives  manifest  a  tendency  to  drop  the  following 
case  endings :  1st,  the  genitive  singular  masculine  of  the 
indefinite  declension.  2d,  the  genitive  and  dative  fem- 
inine of  the  indefinite  declension.  3d,  the  plural  en 
of  the  definite  declension  frequently  becomes  e.  Eighth. 
The  dual  forms  are  still  in  use,  though  not  so  common. 
The  datives  him,  hem,  are  used  instead  of  the  accusative. 
Ninth.  'New  pronominal  forms  appear,  as  ha  =  he,  she, 
they  ;  is  =  her  ;  is  =  them  ;  me  =  one.  Tenth.  The  n  in 
min,  thin,  is  often  dropped  before  consonants,  but  re- 
tained in  the  plural,  and  in  the  oblique  cases.  JElcvienth. 
The  infinitive  frequently  drops  the  final  n,  as  smelle  = 
smellen,  to  smell.  To  is  sometimes  used  as  the  sign  of 
the  infinitive.  Twelfth.  The  gerundial  or  dative  of  the 
infinitive  ends  often  in  en  or  e,  instead  of  enne  (anne). 
Thirteenth.  The  n  of  the  passive  participle  is,  often 
dropped.  Foiirtfifiiith.  The  present  participle  ends  in  m^?^, 
and  is  often  substituted  for  the  gerundial  infinitive,  as,  to 


TEANSITIOiq-   OF  SAXOK  INTO  ENGLISH.  51 

swiminde  =  to  swimene,  =  to  swim.  Fifteenth.  /Shall 
and  will  begin  to  be  employed  as  auxiliaries  of  the 
future  tense.  The  latter  half  of  the  twelfth  century 
was  a  period  of  great  confusion  and  diversity.  The 
older  forms  existed  side  by  side  with  the  new  ones  that 
were  struggling  to  supplant  them,  thus  proving  that 
the  ancient  inflections  did  not  yield  the  supremacy  with- 
out a  vigorous  contest.  In  this  period,  we  first  find  the 
popular  ov provincial  elements  budding  forth,  many  of 
which  afterwards  became  recognized  forms  of  speech. 

These  changes  occur  principally  in  the  Southern  dia- 
lect. In  the  other  dialects  of  this  period  (the  East  and 
West  Midland)  phonetic  decay  had  wrought  a  more  thor- 
ough simplification  of  grammatical  structure.  JThus,  in 
the  Ormulum,  which  is  written  in  the  East  Midland  dia- 
lect, we  note  these  essential  changes  :  Eirst.  The  definite 
article  is  used  as  in  modern  English,  and  that  is  a  demon- 
strative without  regard  to  gender.  Second.  The  gender 
of  substantives  is  nearly  the  same  as  at  present.  Third. 
es  is  commonly  used  as  the  sign  of  the  plural.  Fourth. 
es,  singular  and  plural,  has  become  the  ending  of  the  gen- 
itive or  possessive.  Fifth.  Adjectives,  as  in  the  time  of 
Chaucer,  have  a  final  e  for  the  older  inflections,  but  e  is 
chiefly  used,  1st,  as  a  sign  of  the  plural ;  2d,  to  distin- 
guish the  definite  form  of  the  adjective.  Sixth.  The 
forms  they,  theirs,  come  into  use.  Seventh.  Passive  par- 
ticiples drop  the  prefix  i  {ge),  as,  cximen  for  icumen. 
Eighth.  The  plural  of  the  present  indicative  ends  in  en 
instead  of  eth.  ISTinth.  Arn=are  for  heoth.  In  a  work 
written  before  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  con- 
taining many  forms  belonging  to  the  West  Midland  dia- 
lect, we  find  :  First.  Articles,  nouns,  and  adjectives,  as  in 
the  Ormulum.     Second.  The  pronoun  ^A^^  instead  of  hi 


53  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

or  heo=thej;  7"  for /cor  Ich.  Third.  Passive  partici- 
ples frequently  omit  the  prefix  i.  Fourth.  Active  par- 
ticiples end  in  ande  instead  of  inde.  In  the  conjuga- 
tion of  the  verbs  we  notice  important  changes :  First. 
The  substitution  of  es  for  est  in  the  second  person  of 
weak  or  regular  verbs.  Second.  The  dropping  of  6  in 
strong  or  irregular  verbs.  Between  1150  and  1250  the 
Norman-French  begins  to  affect  slightly  the  vocabulary 
of  English. 

^Changes  between  1250-1350. 

First.  The  article  still  retains  some  of  the  older  inflec- 
tions: as,  the  genitive  singular  feminine;  the  accusa- 
tive masculine ;  the  plural  po  (the  nominative  being  used 
with  all  cases  of  nouns).  Second.  The  confusion  in  the 
gender  of  nouns  increases,  words  becoming  neuter  that 
were  once  masculine  or  feminine.  In  the  course  of 
time  the  language  lost  its  grammatical  gender,  and 
neuter  became  the  designation  of  objects  without  life. 
Anglo-Saxon  had  its  arbitrary  system  of  grammatical 
gender,  like  the  other  Aryan  tongues,  and  the  effacing 
of  these  perplexing  and  fictitious  distinctions  is  one  of  the 
happiest  changes  eflfected  by  the  I^orman-French  influ- 
ence. The  change  itself  is  directly  due  to  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  inflections,  indicating  the  dififerences  of 
gender  and  the  consequent  disappearance  of  the  difier- 
en ces  themselves.  Third.  Plurals  in  672,  and  €5  are  used 
without  distinction.  Fourth.  The  genitive  es  becomes 
more  general,  and  begins  to  supersede  the  older  en  and 
c  in  old  masculine  and  neuter  nouns,  and  e  in  feminine 
nouns.  Fifth.  The  dative  singular  of  pronouns  begins 
to  drop  off;  m^-self  and  t/d-seli  are  often  substituted  for 
meself  and  theself.     Sixth.  Dual  forms  of  the  personal 


TEANSITIOIN'   OF   SAXOIT  IKTO   ENGLISH.  53 

pronouns  disappeared  about  the  close  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  Seventh.  A  final  e  is  used  for  the  sign  of  the 
plural  of  adjectives,  and  for  distinguishing  between  the 
definite  and  indefinite  declensions.  Eighth.  The  gerun- 
dial  infinitive  ends  in  en  or  e.  I^inth.  The  ordinary 
infinitive  takes  the  prefix  to.  Tenth.  A  few  irregular 
verbs  become  regular.  Present  participles  in  inge  ap- 
pear about  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
During  this  period,  and  especially  towards  its  close,  the 
French  element  begins  to  enter  largely  into  the  vocabu- 
lary of  English. 

Changes  between  1350-1460. 

During  this  period  the  Midland  acquires  the  ascend- 
ency, and  becomes  the  standard  speech.  Words  from 
the  Northern  and  Southern  dialects  retain  their  charac- 
teristic peculiarities.  The  following  points  should  be 
noted  with  care :  First.  The  plural  article  tho  =  the ; 
those,  is  still  of  frequent  occurrence.  Second.  The  es  in 
plural  and  genitive  case  of  substantives  is  mostly  a  sepa- 
rate syllable."^  Third.  The  pronouns  are  Zfor  the  older 
le  /  sche  for  the  old  form  heo  /  him,  them,  whom,  used 
as  datives  and  accusatives ;  oiires,  y cures,  heres,  in  com- 
mon use  for  oure,  youre,  here  /  thei  (they)  in  general 
use  instead  of  hi  (heo) ;  here  =  their,  hem  —  them. 
Fourth.  The  plurals  of  verbs  in  the  present  and  past 


*  The  sign  of  the  English  possessive,  's,  is  commonly  referred  to 
the  ending  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  genitive,  es  or  is.  But  the  latter  in- 
flection disappeared  almost  entirely  during  the  period  that  we  are 
now  considering,  and  it  is  at  least  probable  that  our  possessive  sign, 
's,  is  a  new  and  distinct  inflectional  development  such  as  languages 
sometimes  put  forth,  even  at  times  when  their  generative  energy  haa 
apparently  disappeared. 


54  HISTORY   OF  THE  Eiq-GLISH  LANGUAGE. 

indicative  end  in  en  or  e.  The  imperative  plural  ends 
in  etlh ;  est  is  often  used  as  the  inflection  of  the  second 
person  singular  preterite  of  strong  and  weak  verbs. 
The  infinitive  ends  in  en  or  e^  but  this  inflection  often 
disappears  towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
The  present  participle  ends  usually  in  ing  (inge).  The 
passive  participle  of  strong  verbs  ends  in  en  or  e.  The 
termination  e  requires  particular  attention.  It  repre- 
sents an  older  vowel  ending:  nam-e=.nam-a j  or  the 
termination  an^  en,  as  witliute—withutan.  It  represents 
different  inflections,  and  is  used,  1st,  as  a  mark  of  the 
plural  or  definite  adjective ;  2d,  as  a  mark  of  adverbs ; 
3d,  as  a  sign  of  the  infinitive  mood,  past  tense  of  weak 
verbs,  and  imperative  mood.  About  the  close  of  this 
period,  the  use  of  final  e  becomes  irregular  and  unsettled, 
and  the  forms  of  pronouns  prevalent  in  the  northern  di- 
alect, their,  tlieirs,  thern,  are  generally  used  in  the  others. 


CHAPTEK  Y. 

THE   WORKS   OF   THE   TRANSITION   PERIOD.  \*5  CiA'-^ 

*'  There  are  several  works  that  have  descended  to  us 
from  the  thirteenth  century,  which  afford,  as  it  were,  a 
pictorial  illustration  of  tEe  process  by  which  Anglo- 
Saxon  gradually  evolved  itself  from  its  rich  inflectional 
dress,  and  assumed  the  simple  and  graceful  drapery  of 
our  noble  English.  These  works,  though  devoid  of  the 
loftiest  excellence,  or  of  mere  literary  attractions,  are  val- 
uable and  interesting  to  the  student  of  the  English 
tongue,  as  serving  to  elucidate  an  important,  and  per- 
haps difficult  era  in  its  historical  development.  They 
therefore  merit  a  somewhat  detailed  consideration.  They 
are  Layamon's  "  Chronidg^of  Brutu  ;  "  the  "  Ancren 
Riwle,"  the  "  Ormulum,"  and  "  Robert  of  Gloucester's 
Chronicle."  The  language  of  the  first  three  of  these 
may  be  termed  semi-Saxon,  or  broken  Saxon  ;  that  of  the 
last  is  English,  and  is  the  first  acknowledged  composi- 
tion in  the  English  tongue.  Except  tM  "  Ancren  Riwle," 
they  are  all  in  verse,  a  form  ofTahguage  in  which  the 
early  efforts  of  every  literature  are  embodied.  The 
work  of  Layamon  "  is  a  versified  chronicle  of  the  mythi- 
cal history  of  Britain  and  its  ancient  kings,  dating  from 
the  destruction  of  Troy,  and  the  flight  of  ^neas,  from 
whom  descended  Brutus,  the  founder  of  the  British 
monarchy,  and  extending  to  the  reign  of  Athelstan." 
The  "  Brat "  or  "  Chronicle  of  Britain  "  is  principally, 


56  HISTORY  OF  THE  EI^-GLISH  LANGUAGE. 

though  with  many  additions,  a  translation  of  the  French 
"  Brut  D'  Angleterre  "  of  Wace,  a  French  scholar,  which 
was  itself  a  translation,  with  considerable  additions,  of 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth's  "  Latin  History  of  the  Britons," 
which  is  also  a  translation  from  a  French  or  Welsh 
original.  "  So  that  the  genealogy  of  the  four  versions 
is  as  follows  :  First,  a  Celtic  original  probably,  now  lost ; 
Secondly,  the  Latin  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth ;  Thirdly, 
the  French  of  Wace;  Fourthly,  the  English  of  Laya- 
mon."  The  work  of  Layamon  was  written  during  the 
first  half  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  language  is 
that  of  the  Southern  dialect,  and  it  represents  the  com- 
mencement of  a  new  period,  during  which,  after  a  vio- 
lent struggle,  in  which  the  old  inflections  maintained 
their  place  side  by  side  with  the  new,  certain  forms  ac- 
quire the  ascendency,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others, 
and  we  consequently  discover  a  greater  simplicity  of  struc- 
ture, and  a  more  uniform  employment  of  inflections  than 
in  works  of  the  preceding  period.  "  The_language-of 
Layamon,"  says  Sir  Frederick  Madden,  "  belongs  _to_that 
transition  period,  in  which  the  groundwork  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  phraseology  still  existed,  although  gradually  yield- 
ifig~To"the  influence  of  the  popular  forms  of  sp,eech." 
We  find  in  it  marked  indications  of  a  tendency  to^adopt 
those  terminations  and  sounds  which  characterize  a  lan- 
guage in  a  state  of  change,  and  which  are  apparent  in 
some  other  branches  of  the  Teutonic  tongue.  As  illus- 
trating the  "  progress  made  in  two  centuries  in  depart- 
ing from  the  ancient  and  purer  grammatical  forms,  as 
found  in  Anglo-Saxon  manuscripts,  he  mentions  the  use 
of  a  as  an  article,  the  change  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  termi- 
nations a  and  an^  into  e  and  en^  as  well  as  the  disregard 
of  inflections  and  genders,  the  masculine  forms  given  to 


THE   WORKS   OF  THE   TRAiTSITIOiq-   PERIOD.  57 

neuter  nouns  in  the  plural,  the  neglect  of  the  feminine 
terminations  of  adjectives  and  pronouns,  and  confusion 
between  the  definite  and  indefinite  declensions,  the  intro- 
duction of  the  preposition  to  before  infinitives,  and  occa- 
sional use  of  weak  preterites  of  verbs  and  participles  instead 
of  strong,  the  constant  occurrence  of  en  for  on  in  the 
plural  of  verbs,  and  frequent  elision  of  the  final  ^,  together 
with  uncertainty  in  the  rule  for  the  government  of  pre- 
positions." In  the  earlier  text  one  of  the  most  striking 
peculiarities  is  what  Sir  Frederick  Madden  has  termed 
the  "  nunnation^''  consisting  of  the  addition  of  a  final 
n  to  certain  cases  of  nouns  and  adjectives,  to  some  tenses 
of  verbs,  and  to  several  other  parts  of  speech.  One 
fact  deserving  particular  attention  in  the  English  of 
Layamon,  is  the  very  slight  infusion  of  Korman-French 
or  Latin  words.  In  the  earlier  text*  we  do  not  find  more 
than  fifty  French  words  (even  including  some  that  may 
have  come  directly  from  the  Latin),  and  of  these  fifty, 
several  were  in  use  in  the  preceding  century.  The 
later  text  retains  about  thirty  of  these,  and  adds  about 
forty  new  ones,  so  that  "if  we  reckon  ninety  words  of 
French  origin  in  both  texts,  containing  together  more 
than  fifty-six  thousand  eight  hundred,  we  shall  be  able  to 
form  a  tolerably  correct  estimate  of  how  little  the  English, 
language  was  affected  by  foreign  converse,  even  as  late  as 
the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century."  Layamon's  poem 
contains  about  thirty-two  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty 
lines,  and  the  additions  to  the  original  constitute  the 
finest  portions  of  the  work.  "  The  structure  of  Laya- 
mon's poem,"  says   Sir   Frederick   Madden,    "  consists 

*  There  are  two  texts  of  Layamon's  "  Brut "  in  existence,  the  first 
of  which  was  probably  written  about  1200  ;  the  second  about  1250. 


58  HISTORY  OF  THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

partly  of  lines  in  which  the  alliterative  system  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons  is  preserved,  and  partly  of  couplets  of 
unequal  length,  rhyming  together."  Many  couplets  oc- 
cur in  which  all  these  forms  are  intermingled,  while  in 
others  they  are  not  found  at  all,  and  the  two  systems  are 
used  in  so  arbitrary  a  manner,  the  author  passing  from 
rhyme  to  alliteration,  and  from  alliteration  to  rhyme, 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  ascertain  the  relative  pro- 
portions of  each.  Upon  the  whole  the  alliterative  por- 
tion greatly  predominates  over  the  rhymes,  even  includ- 
ing the  assonant  rhymes,  or  those  in  which  the  vowels 
agree  while  the  consonants  are  different,  which  is  of 
frequent  occurrence,  though  almost  unknown  elsewhere 
in  English  poetry.* 

The  "Ancren  Riwle,"  or  "Anchorites'  Rule,"  possesses 
little  literary  interest,  though  it  is  of  decided  philolog- 
ical or  grammatical  importance.  It  is  a  code  of  monastic 
regulations  or  precepts,  written  probably  by  an  ecclesi- 
astic, for  the  guidance  of  three  ladies  to  whom  it  is  ad- 
dressed, and  who  formed  a  religious  association,  at  Ta- 
rente,  in  Dorsetshire.  The  work  was  probably  written 
late  in  the  twelfth  century,  if  not  early  in  the  thirteenth, 
and  is  therefore  almost  contemporaneous  with  the 
Chronicle  of  Lay  am  on,  to  the  earlier  text  of  which  it 
exhibits  a  striking  likeness. 

The  literary  merit  of  the  work  does  not  entitle  it  to 


*  "  One  of  the  most  remarkable  orthographical  changes  in  the 
work  of  Layamon,  is  the  change  from  initial  hw  to  wh;  compare  hwo, 
who,  hwich,  which.  This  transposition  was  not  regularly  employed 
by  any  writer  before  Layamon.  Another  noteworthy  feature  is  his 
regular  and  accurate  employment  of  shall  and  will  as  auxiliaries." 
— Marsh.  "  Layamon  is  the  last  writer  who  retains  an  echo  of  the 
literary  Anglo-Saxon." — Earle. 


THE   WORKS   OF  THE  TRANSITION   PERIOD.  59 

especial  attention,  and  it  is  merely  on  account  of  its 
value  as  illiistrating  ■  the  progress  of  transition  from 
Saxon  to  English,  that  we  include  it  in  our  history  of  the 
language.  "  The  spelling,"  says  Mr.  Morton,  "whetlier 
from  carelessness  or  want  of  system,  is  of  an  uncommon 
and  imsetlled_-iiharactery~aiid-J2iay  be  pronounced  barba- 
rous and  uncouth.  The  language  is  semi-Saxon,  or  An- 
glo-Saxon somewhat  changed,  and  in  the  first  of  the 
various  stages  through  which  it  had  to  pass,  before  it 
arrived  at  the  copiousness  and  elegance  of  our  modern 
English.  The  inflections,  whi«li  originally  marked  the 
oblique  cases  of  substantive  nouns,  and  also  the  distinc- 
tions of  gender,  are  for  the  most  part  discarded.  Yet 
as  these  changes  are  partial  and  incomplete,  enough  of 
the  more  ancient  characteristics  of  the  language  is  left 
to  justify  the  inference  that  the  innovations  are  recent. 
l^ot  only  is  es  of  the  genitive  case  retained,  but  we  very 
often  meet  with  the  dative  and  accusative  in  e,  and  the 
accusative  in  en,  as  then,  the.  We  meet  also  occasionally 
with  the  genitive  in  re  from  the  Saxon  ra,  and  ne  and 
ene  from  ena.  The  cases  and  genders  of  adjectives  are 
generally  disused,  but  not  always.  The  moods  and 
tenses  of  the  verbs  are  little  altered  from  the  older 
forms,  and  in  many  words  they  are  not  changed  at  all. 
The  infinitive,  which  in  pure  Saxon  ends  invariably  in 
a7i,  is  changed  into  en.'^  From  the  general  character  of 
its  structure,  and  from  its  resemblance  to  the  older  text 
of  Layamon,  Mr.  Morton  concludes  that  in  the  '^  Ancren 
Riwle"  we  have  a  specimen  of  the  language  of  the  West 
of  England  in  the  thirteenth  century.  One  essential 
difference  between  the  "  Brut''  of  Layamon  and  the  "  An- 
cren Riwle,"  is  the  much  greater  proportion  of  French 
words   contained  in  the  latter  work.     This,  however, 


60  HISTORY  OF  THE  EITGLISH  LAKGUAGE. 

may  be  readily  explained,  as  the  topics  discussed  in  the 
"  Ancren  Eiwle"  are  theological  and  moral,  and  conse- 
quently required  the  employment  of  a  Latin  and 
French  vocabulary. 

The  "  Ormulum"  (1215)  is  described  by  its  editor.  Dr. 
White,  as  "  a  series  of  homilies  in  an  imperfect  state, 
composed  in  metre  without  alliteration,  and,  except  in 
very  few  cases,  also  without  rhyme ;  the  subject  of  the 
homilies  being  supplied  by  those  portions  of  the  l^ew 
Testament  which  were  read  in  the  daily  service  of  the 
church,  the  design  of  the  writer  being,  first  to  give  a 
paraphrastic  version  of  the  Gospel  of  the  day,  adapting 
the  matter  to  the  rules  of  his  verse,  with  such  verbal 
additions  as  were  •  required  for  that  purpose."  The 
"  Ormulum"  (so  called  from  its  author,  Orm,  a  monk  of 
the  Augustine  Order)  has  more  interest,  both  in  a  liter- 
ary and  philological  point  of  view,  than  any  other 
work  of  the  Transition  Period.  Orm  appears  to  have 
been  an  orthoepist  of  nature's  own  making,  and  in  his 
ingeniously  devised  system  of  spelling,  we  have  the  first 
known  attempt  at  orthoepical  reform  in  the  history  of 
our  tongue.  The  assiduous  and  painstaking  labors  of 
the  author,  and  his  quaint  devices  for  indicating  the 
sounds  of  words  by  technical  contrivances,  imply  a  con- 
scious appreciation  of  the  anomalies  and  diversities  of 
English  spelling,  and  his  praiseworthy  efforts  were  pro- 
bably designed  to  establish,  or  at  least  to  preserve,  a 
standard  of  correct  pronunciation  in  the  midst  of  dia- 
lectic divergences  and  confusions.  The  principal  pecu- 
liarities of  Orm's  orthography  consist  "  in  a  doubling  of 
the  consonant  whenever  it  follows  a  vowel  having  any 
sound  except  that  which  is  now  indicated  by  the  annex- 
ation of  a  final  e  to  the  single  consonant.     Thus,  pane 


THE   WORKS   OF  THE   TRAiTSITIOi^   PERIOD.  61 

would  be  written  pan  by  Orm,  but  pan^pann  ;  mean^ 
men,  but  men,  menu  ;  pine, pin,  but  pin,pinn  ;  tune, 
tun,  but  tun,  tunnP  The  versification  departs  from 
the  Anglo-Saxon  standard,  in  wanting  alliteration  and  in 
possessing  a  regular  metrical  flow ;  and  from  the  Nor- 
man-French in  wanting  rhyme.  The  vocabulary  is 
slightly  affected  by  Latin  elements,  and  scarcely  at  all 
by  Norman-French  influence.  The  structure  of  the 
"  Ormulum  "  exhibits  a  more  advanced  stage  of  the  lan- 
guage than  Layamon  ;  in  fact,  so  regular  is  its  syntax  com- 
pared with  that  of  contemporaneous  compositions,  that  it 
might  almost  be  styled  English  instead  of  Anglo-Saxon. 
The  "  Chronicle  of  Eobert  of  Gloucester"  is  a  narrative 
of  British  and  English  history,  from  the  siege  of  Troy 
to  the  death  of  Henry  III.,  1272.  The  earlier  part  of 
the  work  is  founded  upon  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth's 
Latin  History,  but  it  is  destitute  of  skill  or  imagination. 
"  The  author,"  says  Warton,  "  has  clothed  the  fables  of 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  in  rhyme,  which  have  often  a  more 
poetical  air  in  Geoffrey's  prose."  The  "  Chronicle,"  how- 
ever, is  worthy  of  notice,  not  only  on  account  of  its  con- 
tributions to  our  knowledge  of  the  history  of  ^gland 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  but  also  because  it  is  ttie  old- 
est professed  historical  composition  in  the  language. 
The  style  is  that  of  the  Western  English.  To  the  stu- 
dent of  English  philology,  the  work  is  peculiarly  inter- 
esting, as  illustrating  the  state  of  the  language  about  the 
accession  of  Edward  L,  and  also  for  the  information  it 
conveys  respecting  the  bilingual  condition  of  England 
produced  by  the  introduction  of  the  Norman  tongue, 
and  its  prevalence  during  the  author's  lifetime,  more 
than  two  centuries  after  the  Conquest.  We  transcribe 
the  following  lines : 


62  HISTORY   OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

Thus  come  lo !  Engelonde  into  Normannes  lionde, 

And  tlie  Normans  ne  coutlie  speke  tlio  bote  her  owe  speche. 

And  speke  French  as  dude  atom,  and  here  chyldren  dude  also  teche. 

So  that  heymen  of  thys  lond,  that  of  her  blod  come, 

Holdeth  alle  thulke  speche  that  hii  of  hem  none 

Vor  bote  a  man  couthe  French,  me  tolth  of  hym  well  lute, 

Ac  lowe  men  holdeth  to  Englyss,  and  to  her  kunde  speche  yute, 

Ich  wene  ther  be  ne  man  in  world  countreyes  none. 

That  ne  holdeth  to  her  kunde  speche,  but  Engelond  one, 

Ac  wel  me  wot  vor  to  conne  bothe  wel  yt  ys, 

Vor  the  more  that  a  man  con,  the  more  worth  he  ys. 

That  is :  Tims  lo !  England  came  into  the  hand  of  the 
ISTormans,  and  the  Kormans  could  not  speak  then  but 
their  own  speech,  and  spoke  French,  as  thej  did  at 
home,  and  their  children  did  all  so  teach ;  so  that  high, 
men  of  this  land  that  of  their  blood  come,  retain  all  the 
same  speech  that  they  of  them  took.  For  unless  a  man 
know  French,  one  talketh  of  him  little.  But  low  men 
hold  to  English  and  to  their  natural  speech  yet.  I 
imagine  there  be  no  people  in  any  country  of  the  world 
that  do  not  hold  to  their  natural  speech  but  in  England 
alone.  But  well  I  wot  it  is  well  for  to  know  both,  for 
the  niore  that  a  man  knows  the  more  worth  he  is. 


CHAPTEE  YI. 

THE    RISE    OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

The  works  of  the  Transition  era  enable  us  to  trace 
with  tolerable  accuracy  the  series  of  changes  by  which 
Anglo-Saxon  passed  from  its  inflected  to  its  uninflected 
stage.  So  gradual  and  difficult  of  chronological  deter- 
mination are  the  changes  which  occur  in  every  tongue, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  fix  with  precision  a  point  at 
v/hieh  a  language  may  be  said  to  pass  from  one  pliase 
into  another,  from  its  radical  to  its  agglutinative  stage, 
or  from  its  agglutinative  to  its  inflected  form.  All  such 
determinations  of  the  periods  of  a  language  are  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  arbitrary,  and  the  most  that  can  be  accom- 
plished is  to  approximate  with  some  degree  of  correct- 
ness to  those  almost  impalpable  boundaries  at  which  one 
speech  fades  into  another,  or  passes  from  the  exiroerant 
vigour  of  youth  to  the  maturity  of  manhood,  or  from  the 
maturity  of  manhood  to  the  infirmity  of  age. 

By  the  middle,  or  about  the  middle^  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  the  Anglo-Saxon  dialects  had  undergone  so 
marked  a  simplification  of  structure  that  we  are  enabled 
to  discover  a  gradual  approximation  to  their  modern 
representative,  the  standard  English  of  the  present  day. 
The  rise  of  the  English  tongue,  as  a  new  form  of  speech, 
may  thus  be  dated  from  about  the  middle  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  a.  d.  12a0.  But  this  must  be  carefully 
distinguished  from  the  rise  of  the  Queen's  English,  or 


64  HISTORY   OF  .THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

literary  form  of  the  language,  wliich  did  not  acquire  the 
ascendency  until  a  later  period.  There  was  at  this  pe- 
riod no  generally  received  standard  of  speech.  English 
had  commenced  its  history,  but  it  consisted  merely  of  a 
congeries  of  dialects,  which  had  diverged  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  stem,  each  having  its  grammatical  peculi- 
arities and  its  literature,  however  imperfect ;  varying  in 
different  localities,  and  agreeing  only  in  one  essential 
particular,  the  loss  of  inflections  and  general  simpliflca-. 
tion  of  structure. 

Between  the  years  1215  and  1350,  we  trace  the  vi^our- 
ous  and  praiseworthy  efforts  of  the  Saxon  writers  to 
establish  a  national  literature.  The  poems  of  "  Genesis 
and  Exodus,"  "  Havelok  the  Dane,"  the  ''  Owl  and  the 
Nightingale,"  the  "Romance  of  King  Alexander,"  the 
"Chronicle  of  Robert  of  Gloucester,"  may  be  mentioned 
as  exemplifications  of  this  tendency.*  But  these  pro- 
ductions, although  enduring  memorials  of  the  patriotism 
of  their  authors,  serve  to  illustrate  the  divided  and  dia- 
lectic condition  of  the  language  from  the  twelfth  to  the 
fourteenth  century.  During  this  long  era  of  depression, 
[Rorj^an-Erench  retained  the  ascendency  as  the  dialect 
of  the  court  and  of  fashionable  circles,  from  which  the 
verses  of  the  Saxon  poets  were  rigourously  excluded. 
Erom  the  Conquest  to  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  all  the  fashionable  or  popular  literature  of  Eng- 

*  By  many  philologists  and  critics,  the  celebrated  "  Proclamation 
of  Henry  III,"  (1258)  is  considered  the  first  specimen  of  composition 
in  the  English  tongue.  But  it  bears  no  resemblance  to  the  literary 
English,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Earle.  The  proclamation 
has  been  printed  from  the  original  document,  by  Mr.  Ellis,  and  it 
may  be  found  among  the  publications  of  the  Early  English  Text 
Society  ;  also  in  Earle's  "  Philology  of  the  English  Tongue,"  and  in 
Corson's  "Hand-Book  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  Early  English." 


THE   RISE   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LAInTGUAGE.  65 

land  was  written  in  the  Norman  tongue.  It  was  the  lan- 
guage of  light  literature,  of  the  romances,  the  ballads, 
and  metrical  chronicles,  designed  to  entertain  the  Kor- 
man  nobility  and  their  followers.  Their  merits  must 
have  been  of  an  inferior  order,  if  we  may  judge  from 
the  ridicule  with  which  they  were  assailed  by  Chaucer. 
The  great  mass  of  Korman-French  literature  was  pro- 
duced in  England;  its  cultivation  commenced  in  that 
land,  the  Normans  having  no  literature  worthy  of  men- 
tion at  the  era  of  the  Conquest.  The  fact  to  be  particu- 
larly noted  in  this  connection  is,  that  during  this  long 
interval  of  gloom  and  oppression,  from  Aelfric  to  Chau- 
cer, the  vernacular  tongue  never  ceased  to  be  cultivated. 
Expelled  from  elegant  and  courtly  association,  dissev- 
ered into  dialects,  unable  to  compete  with  the  dominant 
idiom,  it  was  cherished  with  assiduous  diligence  in  the 
monasteries  and  abbeys,  and  many  of  the  literary  memo- 
rials of  this  age  are  remarkalile  compositions,  if  we  con- 
sider the  circumstances  under  which  they  were  produced. 

But  this  protracted  period  of  national  and  linguistic 
depression  was  to  be  relieved  by  the  coming  of  a 
brighter  day.  Hitherto  we  have  seen  merely  a  discord- 
ant English  language,  without  .generally  acknowledged 
standards  or  canons  of  literature.  There  was  no  national 
speech  and  no  national  unity  until  the  middle  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  The  Anglo-Saxon  as  the  language  of 
the  people,  the  Latin  as  the  dialect  of  learning  and  the 
clergy,  and  the  French  as  the  speech  of  the  court  and 
the  aristocracy,  existed  side  by  side,  without  seriously 
affecting,  or  modifying  each  other's  vocabulary  until 
about  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  1327-YT.  ,„^ 

The  distrust  and  animosity  generated  by  the  Conquest 
prevented  a  blending  either  of  nationalities  or  dialects, 


66  HISTORY  OF  THE  El^TGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

and  the  two  languages,  like  the  two  races,  pursued  their 
courses  like  parallel  streams,  without  converging  or  com- 
mingling.     The  !Norraan-French  dislocated  the  inflec- 
tions of  English,  and  disturbed  its  pronunciation  ;  while 
Anglo-Saxon  imparted  a  number  of  words  to  the  vocabu- 
lary of  French.     To  all  intents,  however,  the  two  tongues 
remained  essentially  separate,  and  each  imparted  as  much 
as  it  received.     But  those  important  political  events  that 
clouded  the  latter  years  of  Edward's  brilliant  reign,  the  loss 
of  all  the  splendid  Continental  acquisitions  of  England 
(which   embraced   the   Atlantic   coast  of    France,   and 
which  were  further  advanced,  both  in  social  and  intellec- 
tual culture  than  the  Normans  of  England),  marked  the 
commencement  of  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  Eng- 
lish race  and  the  English  tongue.     The  disasters  which 
cast  a  shadow  over  the  declining  years  of  this  glorious 
reign,  led  to  the  renunciation  of  those  cherished  dreams 
of  foreign  conquest  that  had  captivated  the  imagination 
and  fired  the  knightly  spirit  of  Englishmen,  and  tended 
powerfully  to  blend  into  a  homogeneous  mass  the  dis- 
cordant populations  of  the  island,  to  make  England  the 
centre  of  their  affections  and  their  interests — their  com- 
mon country.     "  Had  the  Plantagenets,"  says  Macaulay, 
"  as  at  one  time  seemed  likely,  succeeded  in  uniting  all 
France  under  their  government,  it  is  probable  that  Eng- 
land would  never  have  had  an  independent  existence. 
The  noble  language  of  Milton  and  Burke  would  have 
remained  a  rustic  dialect,  without  a  literature,  a  fixed 
grammar,  or  a  fixed  orthography,  and  would  have  been 
contemptuously  abandoned  to  the  boors.     No  man  of 
English  extraction  would  have  risen  to  eminence,  except 
by  becoming  in  speech  and  in  habits  a  Frenchman." 
Whatever  sentimental  regrets  we  may  be  disposed  to 


THE   RISE   OP  THE   EI^GLISH   LAN'aUAGE. 


67 


indulge  for  the  loss  of  the  magnificent  c« 
ward  III.,  and  the  Black  Prince,  yet 
epoch  that  we  must  date  the  commencement 
greatness.  The  energies  of  Tier  people,  diverted  from 
the  thoughts  of  Continental  empire,  were  now  directed 
to  the  development  of  a  country  which  was  henceforth 
to  be  the  seat  of  their  power ;  and  from  this  era,  the 
English  tongue,  partaking  of  the  spirit  and  the  aspira- 
tions of  those  who  spoke  it,  woke  from  its  long  lethargy, 
and  entered  upon  its  unparalleled  career.  Under  the 
influence  of  these  important  political  events,  social 
jealousies  and  national  hostilities  began  slowly  to  fade 
away,  as  the  two  languages  and  the  two  races  began 
gradually  to  melt  into  one.*  Unity  and  harmony  of  sen- 
timent, the  partial  concession  of  political  privileges  to 
the  humbler  classes,  the  formation  of  social  alliance 
among  the  hitherto  isolated  nationalities,  necessarily  led 
to  the  partial  blending  of  the  two  idioms,  and  to  their 
reciprocal  action  and  influence.  For  nearly  two  hundred 
years  after  the  Conquest,  English  appears  to  have  been 
spoken  and  written  without  any  serious  admixture  of 
French.  "  The  entire  English  vocabulary  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  so  far  as  it  is  known  to  us  in  its  printed 
literature,  consists  of  about  eight  thousand  words.  Of 
these  about  one  thousand,  or  between  twelve  and  thir- 
teen per  cent.,  are  of  Latin  or  Komance  origin,"f  a  strik- 
ing illustration  of  the  slight  impression  that  the  long 
continuance  of  French  domination  in  England  had  made 
upon  the  vocabulary  of  the  vernacular  tongue.     It  was 

*  The  union  of  the  two  races  had  been  partially  accomplished  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  and  in  the  reign  of  John,  by  the  conquest 
of  Normandy  (1204),  and  by  the  enactment  of  Magna  Charta  (1215). 

f  Marsh's  '  *  Origin  and  History  of  the  English  Language." 


68  HISTORY  OF  THE  EN"GLISH  LANGUAGE. 

the  structure  of  the  language  that  principally  suffered 
from  foreign  contact,  during  the  two  centuries  following 
the  Conquest.  JN^or  did  the  Norman-French  escape  the 
pernicious  effects  of  foreign  influence.  On  the  contrary, 
it  experienced  decided  alterations  from  its  contact  with 
the  decaying  Saxon,  and  suffered  as  much  mutation  as  it 
had  produced.  Upon  the  conquest  of  Normandy  from 
King  John  in  1204  by  Philip  Augustus,  the  kings  of 
England  ceased  to  be  dukes  of  Normandy,  and  the  Nor- 
man language,  separated  from  the  culture  of  its  ancestral 
home,  gradually  declined  in  purity ;  it  lost  its  original 
accentuation,  and  assumed  an  insular  character.  It  ac- 
quired an  antiquated  and  incorrect  air ;  certain  features 
belonging  to  the  provincial  dialect  of  Normandy  had 
engrafted  themselves  upon  it,  and  its  pronunciation 
seems  to  have  resembled  the  accent  of  Lower  Normandy. 
In  addition,  this  accent,  when  introduced  into  England, 
received  a  perceptible  impress  from  Saxon  articulation. 
The  speech  of  the  Anglo-Norman  barons  was  distin-  j 
guished  from  that  of  Normandy  by  a  stronger  articula-  " 
tion  of  particular  syllables,  and  more  especially  of  the 
final  consonants.  It  was  corrupted  by  Anglicisms,  and 
was  sometimes  little  more  than  a  mutilated  English. 
Even  persons  of  culture,  like  Chaucer's  gentle  and 
decorous  Prioress,  spoke  a  French  which  was  utterly 
opposed  "  to  French  of  Paris,"  for  although  she  could 
speak  it  "  f ul  fayre  and  f etisly,"  she  followed  the  French 
of  "  Stratford  atte  Bowe,  for  Frenche  of  Paris  was  to 
hire  (her)  unknowe." 

If  such  M^as  the  French  of  the  educated,  we  can  readi- 
ly imagine  what  it  must  have  been  in  the  mouths  of  the 
peasantry  who  affected  to  understand  it.  Trevisa  tells  us, 
^' Jack  wold  be  a  gentleman  yf  he  coude  speke  Frensche." 


THE   lUSE   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  69 

"  In  Piers  rionghmaia,"  says  Mr.  Earle,  "  we  have  the 
dykers  and  delvers,  with  their  bits  of  French,  doing 
a  very  bad  day's  work,  but  eminently  polite  to  the  ladies 
of  the  family : 

'  Dykers  and  Delvers  that  don  here  werk  ille, 

And  drivetli  forth  the  longe  day,  with  Deu,  vous  saue,  dam  emme.* " 

These  specimens  will  illustrate  the  extended  preva- 
lence of  French  in  England,  as  well  as  its  deformed  and 
debased  condition.  The  more  widely  it  was  diffused, 
the  less  firm  was  its  sway,  until  in  the  fourteenth  century 
it  was  a  general  subject  of  jest  and  ridicule.  But  as  the 
French  declined,  the  native  language  was  growing  more 
and  more  into  repute.  The  new  political  and  social  con- 
ditions of  which  we  have  spoken,  were  beginning  to 
•accomplish  their  natural  result.  The  commingling  of 
the  two  races  involved  a  coalescence  of  the  two  tongues. 
Henceforth  the  native  language  began  to  adopt  and 
naturalize  French  vocables,  appropriating  them,  not  as 
badges  of  subjection,  but  as  trophies  of  a  successful 
contest  against  a  valiant  and  determined  foe.  The  adop- 
tion and  intermixture  of  French  words  commenced  when 
English  was  received  as  the  speech  of  that  part  of  the 
nation  which  had  previously  spoken  French.  So  rapidly 
did  the  language,  now  conscious  of  its  powers,  and  an- 
ticipating the  brilliant  triumphs  in  reserve  for  it,  absorb 
the  foreign  material,  that  between  1300  and  1350,  as 
many  Latin  and  French  words  were  introduced  into  the 
vocabulary  of  the  English  tongue,  as  in  the  whole  period 
of  more  than  two  centuries  that  had  intervened  between 
the  Conquest  and  the  commencement  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  About  the  middle  of  this  century,  the  native 
speech  appears  in  full  vigour  and  promise;  the  era  of  its 
gloom  and  depression  is  passed.     Trevisa  designates  the 


70  HISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

great  plague  of  1349  as  a  point  after  which  the  popular 
fancy  for  speaking  French  began  to  abate.  He  says : 
*'  This  was  moche  used  tofore  the  grete  deth,  but  sith  it 
is  somedele  chaunged.  For  John  Cornwaile,  a  maister  of 
gramar,  chaungide  the  lore  (learning)  in  gramar  scole  and 
construction  of  (from)  Frensch  into  Englisch,  and  Richard 
Pencriche  lerned  that  manor  teching  of  him,  and  other 
men  of  Pencriche.  So  that  now,  the  yere  of  owre  Lord, 
a  thousand  thre  hundred  four  score  and  fyve  (1349),  of 
the  secunde  King  Bychard  after  the  Conquest  nyne,  in 
alle  the  gramar  scoles  of  England,  children  levetli 
Frensch,  and  construeth  and  lerneth  an  (in)  Englisch." 

In  1362  w^as  passed  the  statute  enacting  that  all  pleas 
pleaded  in  the  King's  Courts  should  be  pleaded  in  the 
English  tongue,  and  enrolled  in  Latin ;  the  pleadings 
previously  to  this  time  having  been  entered  in  French, 
and  the  enrollments  of  them  sometimes  in  French,  and 
sometimes  in  Latin.  Thus  we  see  the  English  language 
restored  to  its  natural  rights  in  the  schools  of  the  realm, 
and  in  the  courts  of  law.  The  reason  alleged  for  the 
last-mentioned  change  was,  that  the  French  language 
had  become  so  much  unknown  in  the  realm,  that  the 
people  who  were  parties  to  suits  at  law  had  no  know- 
ledge nor  understanding  of  that  which  is  said  for  or 
against  them  by  their  sergeants  and  other  pleaders.  Yet, 
strangely  enough,  this  very  statute  is  in  French,  which, 
though  it  had  ceased  to  be  the  language  of  the  people, 
continued  to  a  considerably  later  period  to  be  the  mother 
tongue  of  the  ITorman  dynasty,  and  probably  that  gener- 
ally spoken  at  Court,  and  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

Edward  HI.  wrote  his  letters  and  despatches  in  French, 
and  there  is  but  one  recorded  instance  in  which  this 
monarch  is  known  to  have  used  the  English  tongue. 


THE   EISE   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  7l 

It  was  during  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century 
that  the  English  language,  growing  more  and  more  into 
repute,  ended  by  totally  supplanting  the  French,  except 
with  the  great  barons,  who,  before  they  renounced  the 
dialect  of  their  fatherland,  beguiled  their  weary  hours 
with  works  in  both  languages.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  kings  of  England  and  their  court- 
iers appear  to  have  spoken  the  French  with  fluency  and 
correctness;  but  this  was  purely  an  individual  accom- 
plishment. The  IS^orman  was  no  longer  the  vernacular 
speech  of  the  great,  nor  the  idiom  with  which  children 
were  acquainted  from  their  cradles ;  it  was  cultivated 
merely  as  an  intellectual  discipline  or  a  polite  accom- 
plishment, as  in  the  present  age  we  study  the  languages 
of  Greece  and  Rome. 

Thus,  about  four  centuries  after  the  battle  of  Has- 
tings, disappear  the  differences  of  dialect,  which,  together 
with  the  disparity  of  social  conditions,  had  marked  the 
separation  of  the  two  races,  the  one  descended  from  tlie 
followers  of  William,  and  the  other  from  the  followers 
of  Harold. 


CHAPTER    YII. 

THE   RISE   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE   {contluued). 

In  the  preceding  chapter  we  endeavoured  to  indicate 
the  causes,  social  and  political,  which  blended  the  oppos- 
ing Saxons  and  Kormans,  and  restored  the  native  lan- 
guage to  its  natural  and  inalienable  privileges.  By  the 
action  of  those  causes,  there  were  gradually  created  a 
national  speech  and  a  national  sentiment,  but  the  fusion 
was  not  complete ;  the  proportion  of  Norman  and  Saxon 
elements  in  the  newly  formed  tongue  was  not  definitely 
ascertained ;  it  wanted  that  harmony,  symmetry,  and 
precision  which  are  acquired  only  by  judicious  culture, 
and  by  the  establishment  of  generally  acknowledged 
standards  of  literary  excellence.  Hence,  what  the 
language  needed,  for  the  development  of  its  powers, 
was  the  moulding  influence  of  some  great  word  artist,  1 
who  could  assign  to  the  constituents  of  the  vocabulary  \ 
their  rank  and  proportion,  regulate  its  syntactical  struc- 
ture, and  render  it  the  fit  medium  for  the  loftiest  senti- 
ments, the  grandest  aspirations,  that  were  to  be  embodied 
in  it.  It  was  not  until  the  tongue  had  been  transmuted 
by  the  plastic  touch  of  Chaucer,  had  given  utterance  to 
the  oracles  of  God,  under  the  guidance  of  Wycliffe,  ■ 
and  been  refined  by  the  precise  and  accurate  rhyme  of 
"  ancient  Gower,"  that  it  advanced  to  that  pre-eminence 
which  it  has  maintained  above  all  the  languages  of 
Europe. 


THE   RISE  OF  THE  EIS'GLISH  LANGUAGE.  73 

Let  US  first  observe  the  process  by  whicb  the  vocabu- 
lary of  tlie  fourteenth  century  was  formed,  the  sources 
whence  its  varied  wealth  was  gathered,  ere  it  was  sub- 
jected to  the  delicate  scrutiny  of  Chaucer,  and  was  regu- 
lated by  the  precise  and  accurate  rhyme  of  Gower. 

It  is  a  prevalent  though  a  mistaken  impression,  that 
the  great  number  of  French  words  which  flowed  into  the 
English  language  during  the  fourteenth  century  are  to 
be  attributed  to  poetry,  and  other  departments  of  liter- 
ature. "  The  law,  which  now  first  became  organized 
into  a  science,  introduced  very  many  terms  borrowed 
from  the  nomenclature  of  Latin  and  French  jurispru- 
dence; the  glass-worker,  the  enameller,  the  architect, 
the  brass-founder,  the  Flemish  clothier,  whom  I^orman 
taste  and  luxury  invited,  or  domestic  oppression  expelled, 
from  the  Continent,  brought  with  them  the  vocabularies 
of  their  respective  arts ;  and  Mediterranean  commerce, 
which  was  stimulated  by  the  demand  for  English  wool, 
then  the  finest  in  Europe,  imported  from  the  harbours 
of  a  sea  where  French  was  the  predominant  language, 
both  new  articles  of  merchandise  and  the  French  des- 
ignations of  them.  The  sciences  too,  medicine,  physics, 
geography,  alchemy,  astrology,  all  of  which  became 
known  to  England  chiefly  through  French  channels, 
added  numerous  specific  terms  to  the  existing  vocabu- 
lary."* The  poets,  so  far  from  marring  the  native  speech 
by  too  copious  an  infusion  of  French  words,  were  re- 
served in  their  employment  of  them,  and  when  not 
compelled  by  the  necessities  of  versification,  selected  a 
vocabulary  principally  composed  of  Anglo-Saxon  words. 
The  correctness  of  this  assertion  may  be  established  by 

*  Marsh's  "History  of  the  English  Language." 
4 


74  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

comparing  the  dialect  of  the  prose  writers  of  this  era, 
with  those  poetical  compositions  which  are  designed  for 
the  least  refined  classes,  and  which,  consequently,  em- 
ploy the  simplest  and  most  unpretending  diction.  This 
has  been  admirably  illustrated  by  Mr.  Marsh  in  his 
"  Origin  and  History  of  the  English  Language,'^  268- 
270.  Sir  John  Mandeville  is  the  first  regular  prose 
writer  who  employed  the  newly  formed  language.  After 
spending  many  years  in  foreign  travel,  he  returned  to 
England,  and  composed  (1356)  an  account  of  his  travels, 
written  in  Latin,  translated  into  French,  and  then  into 
English,  "  that  every  man  of  his  nation  might  read  and 
understand  it."  The  book  appears  to  have  had  a  very 
extensive  circulation,  as  there  are  many  copies  in  exist- 
ence, and  its  vocabulary  must  have  been  perfectly  intel- 
ligible to  the  masses  of  English-speaking  people.  Though 
the  style  and  syntactical  structure  of  Mandeville  are 
English,  the  proportion  of  Latin  and  French  words  em- 
ployed in  his  unadorned,  unpoetical  narrative,  is  greater 
than  is  found  in  the  works  of  Langlande,  Chaucer, 
Gower,  or  any  other  English  poet  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  In  the  prologue,  which  contains,  exclusive  of 
Latin  and  Greek  proper  names,  less  than  twelve  hun- 
dred words,  more  than  one  hundred  and  thirty,  or  eleven 
per  cent.,  are  of  Latin  or  French  origin,  and  of  these, 
the  following  are  new  to  English,  not  being  found 
in  the  printed  literature  of  the  preceding  century : 
Assembly,  because,  comprehend,  conquer,  certain,  en- 
viron, excellent,  former  (noun),  frailty,  glorious,  inflame, 
inumber  (inumbrate),  moisten,  nation,  people,  philoso- 
pher, plainly,  proclaim,  promise,  pronounce,  province, 
publish,  reconcile,  redress,  subject,  temporal,  translate, 
trespasser,   visit.     The  following  words  contained  in 


THE   RISE   OF  THE    EN-GLISH   LANGUAGE.  75 

Chapters  I.,  II.,  III.,  XXI.,  XXII.,  were  first  pointed 
out  by  Mr.  Marsh.  '  Abstain,  abundant,  ambassador, 
anoint,  apparel,  appear,  appraise,  array,  attendance; 
benefice,  benignly,  bestial ;  calculation,  cause,  chaplet, 
cherish,  circumcision,  claim,  command  (verb),  compari- 
son, continually,  contrarious,  contrary,  convenient,  con- 
vert, corner,  cover,  cruelty,  cubit,  curiously ;  date,  defend 
(forbid),  degree,  deny,  deprive,  desert  (waste),  devoutly, 
diaper,  discordant,  discover,  disfigured,  dispend,  dissever, 
diversity,  duchy ;  enemy,  enforce,  engender,  estate,  esti- 
mation, examine;  faithfully,  fiercely,  foundation,  fornica- 
tion ;  generation,  governance,  gum ;  idol,  immortal, 
imprint,  incline,  inspiration  ;  join ;  letters  (alphabetic 
characters),  lineage ;  marquis,  menace,  minstrelsy,  money, 
monster,  mortal,  multitude  ;  necessary  ;  obedient,  obeis- 
sante,  obstacle,  ofiicer,^  opinion,  ordinance,  ordinately, 
orient,  ostrich,  outrageously  ;  paper,  pasture,  pearls,  perch 
(a  pole),  perfectly,  profitable,  promise  (noun),  proper 
(own),  province,  purple ;  quantity ;  rebellion,  receive,  re- 
gion, relation,  religious,  return,  reverend,  royalty,  royally, 
rudely;  sacrament,  science,  search,  scripture,  servitor, 
signification,  simony,  soldier,  solemn,  specialty,  spiritual, 
stranger,  subjection,  superscription ;  table,  temporal, 
testament,  throne  (verb),  tissue,  title  (inscription) ;  unc- 
tion, usury ;  value,  vary,  vaulted,  vessel,  vicar,  victory, 
vulture. 

We  find,  then,  in  the  prologue,  and  in  the  five  chap- 
ters from  which  these  words  are  taken,  comprising 
about  one-eighth  of  the  volume,  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
four  words  of  Latin  and  Romance  origin,  not  contained 
in  the  printed  literature  of  the  thirteenth  century.  It  is 
evident,  from  the  results  of  this  investigation,  that  the 
charge  so  often  preferred  against  the  poets  of  the  four- 


76  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

teenth  century,  of  having  corrupted  the  purity  of  their 
native  tongue  by  foreign  admixture,  is  unsupported  and 
unjust.  It  was  the  serious  diminution  of  its  resources 
that  the  Anglo-Saxon  had  experienced  during  the  dreary 
period  of  its  literary  subjection,  when  its  powers  were 
enfeebled  for  lack  of  assiduous  culture,  and  its  intellec- 
tual and  moral  vocabulary  languished  and  decayed, 
which  rendered  necessary  the  introduction  of  Latin  and 
French  terms.  We  have  already  alluded  to  the  rich- 
ness of  its  theological  and  intellectual  vocabulary,  and 
it  was  in  these  departments  that  it  had  encountered  the 
severest  losses.  So  long  as  England  remained  inde- 
pendent of  Continental  alliances,  the  Saxon  preserved 
its  copious  spiritual  nomenclature,  unaffected  by  foreign 
admixture  or  interference.  The  reign  of  Edward  the 
Confessor  introduced  England  into  the  sphere  of  Con- 
tinental relations,  and  the  Conquest  gave  the  finishing 
stroke  to  the  employment  of  Saxon  for  ecclesiastical 
and  spiritual  purposes ;  I^orman  priests  and  teachers  ad- 
hered pertinaciously  to  the  consecrated  dialect  of  Kome, 
and  the  native  spiritual  and  intellectual  vocabulary,  fall- 
ing into  disuse,  became  gradually  obsolete.  Hence,  when 
the  new  language  began  to  be  employed  as  a  literary 
speech,  its  defects  in  these  essential  particulars  had  to 
be  remedied  by  calling  into  service  the  corresponding 
terms  in  the  Norman  tongue.  The  old  and  oft  repeated 
complaint,  urged  against  the  poets  of  this  century  by 
Gil,  Verstegan,  and  Skimer,  is  not  sustained  by  the 
evidence ;  it  was  an  erroneous  opinion,  based  upon  an 
imperfect  acquaintance  with  the  historical  development 
of  our  language.  The  foreign  vocables  would  doubt- 
less have  secured  all  the  privileges  of  English  citizenship, 
if  the  fourteenth  century  did  not  record  the  name  of  a 


THE    KISE   OF  THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  77 

single  poet.  The  language  was  recovering  its  conscious- 
ness; a  coalescence  of  the  separated  nationalities  in- 
volved a  blending  of  their  tongues,  and  the  influx  of 
foreign  words  was  a  necessity,  which,  in  any  event,  must 
have  resulted  from  the  altered  political  and  social  rela- 
tions of  the  kingdom.  It  was  the  exalted  function  of 
the  poets  of  this  age  to  refine,  polish,  and  skilfully  dis- 
pose of  the  linguistic  materials,  that  the  fusion  of  races, 
and  the  other  causes  indicated  above,  had  accumulated  ; 
to  adjust  the  imperfectly  blended  elements,  assigning  to 
each  its  importance;  and  from  their  harmonious  com- 
mingling, to  evolve  a  language  adequate  to  all  the  de- 
mands of  the  peerless  literature  that  was  to  be  treasured 
up  in  it.  The  poets,  in  short,  were  the  arbiters,  the 
umpires,  the  law-givers  of  the  language. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

PIEKS,   THE   PLOWMAN. 

The  interest  and  importance  of  "  The  Vision  of  Piers 
Plowman"  arise  not  so  much  from  its  h'terary  execution, 
or  its  intrinsic  excellence,  as  from  the  fact  that  it  is  the 
first  composition  in  which  the  English  spirit  and  genius 
are  distinctly  perceptible.  The  history  of  English 
literature  dates  from  the  age  of  Chaucer  and  Gower, 
under  whose  guidance  the  literary  speech  assumed  a 
definite  form  and  character.  But  the  "Vision  of  the 
Plowman,"  though  written  in  a  dialect,  presaged  the 
speedy  advent  of  that  glorious  morn,  when  the  new 
language  and  the  new  literature  were  to  enter  upon 
that  magnificent  career  which  have  made  them  the 
wonder  of  our  history.  Piers  Plowman,  then,  is  the 
first  writer,  truly  English  in  sentiment,  and  his  "  Vision  " 
is  an  appropriate  prelude  to  those  grand  bursts  of  melody 
that  were  soon  to  fill  the  balmy  air  with  "  sounds  that 
echo  still." 

It  is  difiicult  to  ascertain  with  precision  the  date  of 
the  poem  known  as  "The  Vision  of  Piers  Plowman,"  but 
it  was  probably  composed  about  1360.-rj[{L  The  author- 
ship of  the  work  is  also  involved  in  obscurity,  and  the 
tradition  which  ascribes  it  to  Robert  Langlande,  an  Eng- 
lish ecclesiastic,  is  not  established  by  trustworthy  evi- 
dence.    But  a  fictitious  Langlande  has  long   had   the 


PIERS,   THE   PLOWMAif.  79 

credit  of  the  poem,  and  as  no  conclusive  testimony  has 
been  adduced  to  invalidate  his  claim,  there  is  no  danger 
of  doing  injustice  to  the  genuine  author,  by  appropriating 
the  name  of  Langlande  as  the  impersonation  of  some 
unknown  writer.  The  acquaintance  with  ecclesiastical 
literature  which  the  poem  displays,  indicates  that  the 
author  was  connected  with  the  clerical  profession i  He 
foreshadowed  the  teachings  of  WyclifFe,  and  he  perhaps 
ultimately  attained  the  same  conclusions  as  this  illustri- 
ous champion  of  the  truth.  Every  writer  who  secures 
an  abiding-place  in  the  memory  of  his  countrymen 
must  be,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  an  exponent  of  the 
age ;  he  must  embody  and  reflect  its  intellectual  senti- 
ments and  tendencies,  its  religious  and  political  opinions. 
In  the  dawn  of  every  literature  this  principle  forms  an 
essential  element  of  success,  and  the  author  of  the 
"  Yision  "  merely  invested  with  poetic  garb  the  sympa- 
thies and  the  aspirings  in  which  every  English  heart 
participated.  The  "  Vision  of  Piers  Plowman,"  there- 
fore, derives  its  poetic  interest,  not  from  its  revelation 
of  unknown  truths,  but  from  its  lucid  reflection  of  the 
life  and  character  of  the  age, its  exposure  of  ecclesiastical 
corruptions,  its  distinctive  dialect  and  alliterative  form, 
which  gave  it  an  extensive  circulation  among  the  hum- 
bler classes.  It  bodied  forth  those  grand  religious  dog- 
mas w^hich  were  dimly  apprehended,  and  by  presenting 
them  forcibly  to  the  consciousness  of  the  English  people, 
it  prepared  the  w^ay  for  the  reception  of  those  tenets 
which  the  eftbrts  of  Wycliffe  and  his  adherents  were 
already  disseminating.  The  numerous  manuscripts  of 
the  work  in  existence,  show  how  general  its  circulation 
must  have  been,  and  the  marked  variations  in  different 
copies   prove  that  it  w^as  deemed  w^orthy  of  diligent 


80  HISTORY  OF  THE  Ei^GLlSH   LANGUAGE. 

recension  by  the  original  author,  or,  at  least,  that  it  was 
essentially  modified  by  the  scribes  to  whose  inspec- 
tion it  had  been  submitted.  The  "  Yision  "  had  become 
a  national  possession,  a  sort  of  "  didactic  catechism." 
The  querulous  tone  which  pervades  the  work  would 
tend  to  increase  its  popularity  among  the  middle  classes, 
who,  though  gradually  acquiring  a  degree  of  social  and 
political  influence,  were  not  yet  sufficiently  powerful  to 
protect  themselves  against  the  encroachments  of  their 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  rulers.  One  circumstance  that  in- 
vests the  poem  with  peculiar  interest,  is  its  adherence 
to  the  ancient  alliterative  system  of  versification ;  and 
it  was  the  last  work  of  eminence  that  conformed  to  the 
canons  of  Anglo-Saxon  verse.  The  "  Yision  of  the 
Plowman "  displays  the  accurate  acquaintance  of  its 
author  with  the  Latin  Scriptures,  the  treatises  of  the 
Fathers,  and  the  works  of  Komish  expositors,  though 
it  contains  few  indications  of  a  knowledge  of  Eomance 
literature.  Still,  the  proportion  of  Norman-French 
words,  or  at  least  of  Norman-French  words  assimilated 
to  Latin,  is  equal  to  that  contained  in  the  poetry  of 
Chaucer.  While  the  conception  of  the  poem  was  doubt- 
less induced  by  the  moral  and  political  condition  of 
contemporary  England,  the  manner  of  treatment  is 
purely  original ;  its  whole  tenor  is  an  entire  departure 
from  the  established  character  of  Anglo-Saxon  poetry. 
Though  the  poem  is  defective  in  unity  of  plan,  its  in- 
tent and  spirit  are  one.  The  scope  of  the  poem  is  re- 
stricted, being  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue.  In  these  portions,  the  language  represents 
the  dialect  of  common  life,  though  the  characters  are 
not  delineated  with  sufficient  individuality  to  invest  it 
with  a  dramatic  colouring.    It  was,  however,  well  adapted 


PIERS,   THE   PLOWMAN.  81 

to  the  intelligence  of  the  class  for  whom  it  was  designed, 
as  is  attested  by  its  extended  circulation,  notwithstand- 
ing its  occasional  introduction  of  Latin  quotations. 

The  diction  of  the  "  Vision "  is  more  archaic  than 
that  of  Chaucer;  many  of  its  words  have  become  ob- 
solete, and  some  have  entirely  disappeared.  The  syn- 
tax, the  structure,  and  the  vocabulary,  however,  present 
as  marked  a  resemblance  as  those  of  any  two  modern 
authors  who  should  discuss  topics  so  unrelated,  and  ad- 
dress audiences  so  diverse,  as  the  cavaliers  of  Chaucer 
and  the  peasants  of  Langlande.*  The  following  outline 
will  illustrate  the  grammar  of  Piers  the  Plowman. 

I^ouns.  The  nominative  plural  commonly  ends  in  es^ 
as  in  shroudes  I  sometimes  in  s,  as  Mdders  j  or  in  z,  as 
in  diamantz.  For  es,  is  is  sometimes  found,  as  in  wittis, 
and  very  rarely  us,  as  folus  /  some  few  plurals  are  in 
en,  as  chylderen.  A  few  nouns,  such  as  yolJc,  which 
were  originally  neuter,  have  no  termination  in  the  plural. 
Gees,  7nen,  are  plurals  formed  by  vowel  change ;  fete  and 
feet  are  various  spellings  of  the  plural  of  foot. 

Cases.  The  genitive  singular  ends  in  es,  sometimes 
corrupted  into  is,  as  cattes,  cattis  j  other  endings  are  very 
rare.  The  genitive  plural  ends  in  en  or  ene,  as  clerJcen. 
The  dative  singular  commonly  ends  in  e,  as  in  to  ledde. 

Adjectives.  The  distinction  between  definite  and 
indefinite  adjectives  is  difiicult,  owing  to  the  irregularity 
of  the  alliterative  rhythm,  and  the  additions  of  copyists 
and  scribes.  Plural  adjectives  should  end  in  e,  and  gen- 
erally do,  as  alle.  The  re-duplication  of  a  consonant  when 
a  syllable  is  added  is  worth  notice ;  thus  alle  is  the  plural 

*  Langlande  wrote  in  the  dialect  of  tlie  Western  shires,  but  his 
style  is  marked  by  Midland  peculiarities. 

4* 


83  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

of  al,  as  shullen  is  the  plural  of  the  auxiliary  shal. 
Yerv  rarely  plural  adjectives  of  French  origin  end  in 
es.  The  comparative  of  heigh  is  herre ;  superlative, 
liexte.  Adjectives  and  adverbs  ending  in  ly^  sometimes' 
form  their  comparatives  and  superlatives  in  loker^  lokest, 
as  light,  lightloker,  lightlohest. 

Pronouns  are  the  same  as  in  Chaucer,  but  besides  sehe, 
the  older  form  heo  is  used,  and  besides  pei,  the  older 
form  h  (hy).  There  are  also  traces  of  dialectic  confu- 
sion and  admixture  in  the  use  of  the  pronouns  ;  their  is 
denoted  by  here,  her,  or  hri  /  them  by  hem.,  etc.,  etc. 

Yerbs.  The  indicative  plural  ends  both  in  en  and  eth, 
as  geten,  conneth.  The  past  tense  of  weak  verbs  which 
should  end  in  ede,  ends,  commonly,  in  ed  only,  both 
in  the  singular  and  plural,  as  jpley-ed,  but  sometimes 
the  full  plural  form,  -eden  occurs.  In  weak  verbs,  which 
should  form  their  past  tenses  in  de  or  te,  the  final  e  is 
often  dropped.  Thus,  went  for  wente.  In  strong  verbs, 
which  should  terminate  (in  the  first  and  third  persons 
singular  of  the  past  tense)  in  a  consonant,  we  often  find 
an  e  added ;  thus :  I  shoj>e  for  I  shojp.  The  plural  gen- 
erally has  the  correct  form,  en,  as  chosen.  In  the  infin- 
itive mood  some  verbs  are  found  with  the  ending  ie  or 
ye,  and  final  e  is  sometimes  dropped.  The  present  par- 
ticiple ends  in  yng,  as  worchyng ;  the  prefix  y  is  often 
found  before  past  participles,  sometimes  even  before 
past  tenses.^ 

The  words  are  selected  with  care,  and  employed  w^ith 
discrimination  as  well  as  with  reference  to  their  radical 
significance.  Notwithstanding  the  allegorical  drapery 
of  the  "Vision,-''  it  affords  us  a  graphic  portraiture  of 

*  Skeat's  Introduction  to  "  Piers  Plowman." 


83 

English  society  in  the  fourteenth  century;  it  removes 
the  obscuring  veil,  and  allows  us  a  glimpse  of  the  inner 
life  of  the  nation.  We  have  incidental  descriptions  of 
the  food,  the  dress,  the  domestic  status  of  the  humbler 
classes,  the  foul  dealing  of  tradesmen  and  mechanics ;  in 
short,  a  vivid  portraiture  of  English  life  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  drawn  by  a  contemporary,  and  surpassing 
in  naturalness  the  intricate  details  of  the  historian. 
Though  the  poem  does  not  enter  into  clironological 
discussion,  it  is  a  valuable  addition  to  our  knowledge  of 
English  character  and  English  society  in  the  age  that 
produced  a  Chaucer  and  a  Wy cliff e. 


CHAPTEE  IX. 

THE   WYCLIFFITE  VERSIONS   OF  THE   SCRIPTURES. 

The  Wyclifiite  versions  of  the  Scriptures  exerted  a 
decided  influence  in  developing  that  particular  dialect 
of  English  which  became  the  literary  form  of  the  lan- 
guage. Tliej  thus  tended  to  prepare  the  way  for 
Chaucer  and  Gower,  the  former  of  whom  was  probably 
indebted  to  the  Wyclifiite  translations  for  much  of  the 
wealth  and  beauty  of  his  diction  and  vocabulary.  The 
Wycliffite  versions  of  the  Scriptures  are  therefore  enti- 
tled to  special  consideration  in  a  history  which  treats 
of  the  origin  and  formation  of  the  English  tongue. 
Though  the  Anglo-Saxon  possessed  a  native  translation 
of  the  Gospels,  and  of  some  other  portions  of  the  Bible, 
there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  any  considerable  part 
of  the  Scriptures,  except  the  Psalter,  had  been  rendered 
into  English  until  the  translation  of  the  entire  sacred 
volume  was  attempted,  by  the  advice  of  Wyclifie,  and 
partially  executed  by  him  about  the  last  quarter  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Whatever  Biblical  knowledge  the 
English  had  acquired  was  gathered  from  their  clergy, 
who  introduced  into  their  discourses  translations  from 
the  Yulgate,  or  Latin  version  of  St.  Jerome.  These 
were  not  intended  for  circulation,  and  consequently  no 
opportunity  was  afibrded  for  the  study  of  the  Scriptures 
in  the  vernacular  tongue.  The  translation  of  WycHfie 
was  made  from  the  Latin  Yulgate,  the  authorized  ver-r 


THE   WYCLIFFITE  VEKSIOITS   OF   THE   SCRIPTUKES.       85 

sion  of  the  Romish  Church.  There  is  no  direct  evidence 
to  prove  that  any  of  the  translators  were  sufficiently 
versed  in  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  to  translate  directly 
from  either  of  those  tongues,  and,  in  consequence,  the 
structural  peculiarities,  or  the  phraseological  combina- 
tions, which  they  impressed  upon  their  version,  are 
derived  from  the  Yulgate,  except  so  far  as  the  style  and 
diction  of  the  Yulgate  itself  had  been  affected  by  the 
syntax  and  vocabulary  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew. 

No  detailed  examination  of  these  works  is  contem- 
plated, nor  an  endeavour  to  ascertain  the  share  which 
Wy cliff e  had  in  the  execution  of  them.  It  is  sufficient 
for  our  purpose  to  say,  that  in  the  only  trustworthy  edi- 
tion we  have  of  any  of  them,  the  older  text,  from  Gene- 
sis to  Barucli,  third  chapter,  twentieth  verse,  is  probably 
the  work  of  Hereford,  an  English  ecclesiastic,  while 
the  remainder  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  Apocry- 
pha, are  supposed  to  have  been  executed  by  Wycliffe. 
There  exists  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the  whole  'New 
Testament  was  rendered  into  English  by  him.  It  is 
impossible  to  ascertain  precisely  the  date  of  the  com- 
mencement and  completion  of  this  important  work,  but 
there  are  good  reasons  for  believing  that  the  older  text 
was  finished  about  1380,  the  revised  edition  of  Purvey 
about  1390.  ^Notwithstanding  the  labour  and  expense  of 
transcribing,  the  translations  appear  to  have  been  widely 
circulated,  as  many  manuscripts  are  in  existence. 

The  fidelity  and  accuracy  that  characterize  the  "Wyc- 
liffe versions  may  be  ascribed  principally  to  the  action 
of  two  causes :  First,  the  translators,  as  well  as  the  peo- 
ple, were  imbued  with  those  intense  religious  sensibili- 
ties, and  that  consciousness  of  intellectual  elevation, 
which  result  from  spiritual  emancipation.     Second,  the 


86  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

structure  of  the  language  was  then  marked  by  simpli- 
city and  freedom  of  expression.  Its  elasticity  and  plian- 
cy had  not  been  checked  by  the  imposition  of  gram- 
matical canons  or  by  the  constraining  influence  of  arbi- 
trary prescription,  and  it  therefore  more  closely  con- 
formed to  the  style  of  the  original  Scriptures  than  the 
polished  and  foraial  diction  of  later  ages.  These  ver- 
sions, consequently,  display,  in  structure  and  in  vocabu- 
lary, a  closer  assimilation  to  the  spirit  and  genius  of  the 
ancient  text  than  could  have  been  attained  with  a  fixed 
syntactical  order  and  a  vocabulary,  a  great  proportion  of 
whose  words  had  assumed  determinate  and  invariable 
shades  of  meaning.  The  most  important  result  accom- 
plished by  these  versions  was  the  formation  of  an  Eng- 
lish religious  dialect,  which,  with  unessential  modifica- 
tions, has  remained  the  language  of  devotion  and  of 
Scriptural  translation  to  the  present  day.  "While  our 
secular  dialect  has  been  fiuctuating,  inconsistent,  and 
subject  to  frequent  mutations,  we  have  possessed  from 
the  dawn  of  our  literary  language  a  sacred  vocabulary, 
idiomatic,  uniform,  and_harmonious. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  style  of  the  original  works 
supposed  to  have  been  written  by  Wycliffe,  is  much  less 
regular  than  that  of  the  'New  Testament,  which,  instead 
of  exhibiting  that  discordance  of  forms  characteristic  of 
the  authors  of  that  period,  appears  to  have  adopted 
some  model,  and  to  have  adhered  to  it  without  variation. 
The  consistent  and  regular  structure  of  Wycliffe's  J^ew 
Testament  imparted  to  the  work  a  pre-eminence  as  a 
standard  of  sacred  and  devotional  phraseology,  and 
many  of  the  archaic  constructions  of  the  Authorized 
Yersion,  as  well  as  many  of  its  special  forms,  were 
transferred  by  Purvey  and  Tyndale  from  Wycliffe,  and 


THE   WYCLIFFITE   VERSIONS   OF  THE   SCRIPTURES.       87 

from  Tyndale  by  thq  translators  of  King  James's  reign, 
remaining  unchanged  during  a  period  of  five  centuries. 
To  so  great  an  extent  are  the  Wycliffite  versions  the 
basis  of  all  succeeding  translations,  that  though  the 
reader  may  occasionally  be  perplexed  by  an  obsolete 
word,  an  archaic  idiom,  or  an  antique  spelling,  it  is 
plausibly  conjectured  by  ^n  eminent  critic,  that  if  the 
illustrious  Reformer  were  restored  to  life  he  would  be 
able  to  read  and  understand  our  modern  edition  of  the 
Bible  without  assistance.  The  writings  of  Langlande 
and  of  Wycliffe  (particularly  the  latter)  introduced  into 
the  English  language  a  great  number  of  words  derived 
directly  from  the  Latin,  or  from  the  Latin  through  tlie 
iJ^Torman-French.  They  conferred  a  more  important 
benefit  upon  the  colloquial  dialect  by  giving  a  general 
circulation  to  many  Latin  and  French  words  which  had 
never  acquired  popular  acceptance,  but  had  been  re- 
stricted to  literary  use.  The  dissemination  of  "Piers 
the  Plowman's  Yision"  among  the  higher  classes  was 
prevented  by  its  retention  of  the  ancient  alliterative 
versification,  and  the  works  of  Wycliffe  were,  in  a  great 
measure,  banished  from  the  same  circles  by  the  conjoint 
action  of  the  secular  and  spiritual  power,  as  seditious  and 
heretical.  Hence,  their  circulation  w^as  confined  to  that 
class  whose  obscurity  afforded  them  immunity  from  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  persecution.  I^ot withstanding  these 
unfavourable  surroundings,  the  translators  of  the  four- 
teenth century  and  their  polemical  compositions  percep- 
tibly increased  the  richness  of  our  moral  and  theological 
vocabulary,  and  much  of  the  excellence  of  our  present 
version  of  the  Scriptures  is  due  to  the  valuable  acces- 
sions which  our  language  received  from  their  assiduous 
labours.     While  the  writings  of  Wycliffe  cannot  be  re- 


88  HISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

garded  as  models  of  the  literary  language  as  it  existed 
in  his  age,  they  contributed  efficaciously  by  their  excel- 
lence and  their  extensive  circulation  to  the  importance 
of  the  East  Midland  dialect,  and  thus  tended  essentially 
to  secure  for  that  speech  the  pre-eminence  as  the  stand- 
ard form  of  the  language.  It  is  probable,  too,  that  they 
contributed  to  the  verbal  affluence  of  Chaucer,  and  in 
this  manner  exerted  a  specific  influence  in  enriching  the 
vocabulary  of  the  new-born  tongue.  The  political  fac- 
tion with  which  Chaucer  sympathized  was  disposed  to 
regard  the  Reformer  with  favour,  and  must  have  cher- 
ished a  kindly  sentiment  towards  the  common  people, 
who  formed  the  reading  public  of  Langlande  and  Wyc- 
liffe.  Hence  we  may  readily  imagine  that  Chaucer  had 
perused  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  as  well  as  the 
"  Yision  of  the  Plowman ; "  nor  could  a  genius  of  his 
subtle  perception  fail  to  discover  that  these  works  treas- 
ured up  verbal  gems  of  purest  ray,  though  in  a  crude 
and  unpolished  condition.  These  rich  jewels,  trans- 
muted by  his  masterly  touch,  tended  to  enrich  and  gild 
his  diction,  and  the  surpassing  excellence  of  his  style  is 
partly  to  be  attributed  to  his  skillful  extraction  of  the 
pure  gold  from  the  writings  of  his  contemporaries,  a 
means  of  improvement  to  which  the  intolerance  of  infe- 
rior artists  would  not  permit  them  to  descend. 


CHAPTEK  t. 

THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE   IN   THE   AGE   OF   CHATTCER. 

In  the  preceding  chapters,  we  endeavoured  to  indicate 
that  series  of  processes  by  which  the  Anglo-Saxon 
tongue  was  divested  of  its  synthetic  form,  and,  deprived 
of  the  conservative  power  of  literary  nurture,  gradually 
became  disintegrated,  diverging  into  several  dialects, 
distinguished  by  well-defined  grammatical  and  structural 
peculiarities.  The  language  and  the  literature  that  we 
have  hitherto  considered  are  dialectic  in  character,  as 
there  was  thus  far  no  generally  recognized  standard  of 
speech,  and  consequently  no  national  literature.  The 
commencement  of  literary  English  must  be  dated  from 
the  latter  half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  from 
the  writings  of  Chaucer  and  his  contemporary,  Gower. 
These  are  the  true  founders  of  the  literary  form  of  our 
tongue.  Having  arrived  at  this  important  point,  the 
rise  of  the  King's  English,  it  may  be  w^ell,  before  pro- 
ceeding further,  to  notice  minutely  the  precise  condition 
which  the  language  had  attained  at  this  period. 

For  the  sake  of  method,  it  will  be  convenient  to  go 
tlirough  the  several  parts  of  speech  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  commonly  ranged  by  grammarians. 

First.  The  prepositive  article,  re,  reo,  paet  (which 
answered  to  the  o  rj  ro  of  the  Greeks),  in  all  its  varieties 
of  gender,  case,  and  number,  had  been  long  laid  aside, 


90  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

and  instead  of  it  an  indeclinable  the  was  prefixed  to  all 
sorts  of  nouns,  in  all  cases  and  in  both  numbers. 

Second.  The  declensions  of  the  nouns  substantive 
were  reduced  from  six  to  one,  and  instead  of  a  variety 
of  cases  in  both  numbers,  they  had  only  a  genitive  case 
singular,  which  was  uniformly  deduced  from  the  nomi- 
native by  adding  to  it  ^ ;  or  only  s  if  it  ended  in  an  e 
feminine ;  and  that  same  form  was  used  to  express  the 
plural  number  in  all  its  cases.  The  nouns  adjective  had 
lost  all  distinction  of  gender,  case,  or  number. 

Third.  The  personal  pronouns  retained  only  one 
oblique  case  in  each  number.  Their  possessive  pronouns 
were  in  the  same  condition  with  the  adjectives.  The 
interrogative  and  relative  wJio  had  now  only  a  genitive 
wlios,  and  an  accusative  whom^  and  no  variety  of  number. 
The  demonstrative  this  and  that  had  only  the  plurals 
thise  and  tho,  and  no  case.  Other  pronominal  words 
had  become  undeclined,  with  very  few  exceptions. 

Fourth.  The  verbs  were  very  nearly  reduced  to  their 
present  simple  state,  having  four  moods,  the  indicative, 
subjunctive,  imperative,  and  infinitive,  and  two  tenses, 
the  present  and  the  past.  All  the  other  varieties  of 
mood  and  tense  were  expressed  by  auxiliary  verbs.  The 
future,  with  shall^  was  coming  into  use.  It  first  occurs 
in  Layamon,  but  the  original  meaning  was  retained  by 
Chaucer:  "For  by  the  faithe  I  schal  {owe)  to  God." 
The  infiection  of  the  verb  in  the  singular  number  was 
nearly  the  same  as  at  present,  /  love,  thou  lovest,  he  lov- 
eth.  In  the  plural  varying  forms  were  used ;  sometimes 
the  Saxon  form  in  eth^2i&  used — we,  ye,  they  loveth ; 
sometimes  the  form  in  en — we,  ye,  they  loven.  Tins 
latter  was  the  prevailing  form  in  the  past  tense,  plural 
number, — we  loveden.    The  Saxon  termination  of  the  in- 


THE  E]S"GLISH  LANGUAGE  IN  THE  AGE.OT"  OHAUCER.      91 


finitive  an,  was  changed  to  en- 
gradually  disappearing,  leaving  to  love. 
participle  generally  ended  in  ing,  but  the  ancient  form 
in  ende  or  a7ide  was  still  in  use — lovende,  lovande.  The 
progressive  changes  were  end,  ind,  m,  ing.  The  past 
participle  was  formed  in  ed  or  contractions  of  ed,  such 
as  e  final,  as  caste,  hurte.  The  past  participle  was  also 
formed  in  en,  particularly  in  irregular  verbs.  Sometimes 
the  n  was  lost — take  for  taken.  The  auxiliaries  were 
still  inflected,  though  not  long  after  Chaucer — we  shallen 
love.  To  have  and  to  ben  were  complete  verbs,  and  the 
latter,  wnth  the  past  participle  and  the  other  auxiliary 
verbs,  supplied  the  place  of  the  passive  voice. 

Fifth.  With  respect  to  the  indeclinable  parts  of  speech, 
it  is  sufficient  to  remark  that  many  of  them  remained 
pure  Saxon ;  the  greater  number,  however,  were  be- 
coming abbreviated. 

Such  was  the  general  condition  of  the  Saxon  element 
in  the  English  language  at  the  time  that  Chaucer  com- 
menced his  literary  career;  let  us  notice  briefly  the 
accessions  wdiich  it  received  at  different  periods  from 
Kormandy. 

As  the  language  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  was  complete  in 
every  essential  respect,  and  had  sufiiced  for  the  purposes 
of  literary  composition  of  diverse  kinds,  as  well  as  for 
all  the  necessities  of  society,  long  before  they  had  sus- 
tained any  intimate  relation  to  their  I^Torman  neighbours, 
there  existed  no  inducement  to  alter  its  original  and  radi- 
cal character,  or  even  to  deviate  from  its  established  forms. 
Consequently  (as  has  just  been  pointed  out),  in  all  the 
essential  parts  of  speech,  the  distinctive  peculiarities  of 
the  Saxon  idiom  were  retained  without  exception,  while 
the  numbers  of  French  words  that  from  time  to  time 


92  HISTORY   OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

were  introduced  were  assimilated  either  immediately  or 
gradually  to  the  Saxon  idiom. 

Sixth.  The  words  thus  introduced  were  principally 
nouns  substantive,  adjectives,  verbs,  and  participles.  The 
adverbs,  which  are  derived  from  French  adjectives,  seem 
to  have  been  formed  from  them  after  they  were  Angli- 
cized, as  they  have  all  the  Saxon  termination  liche  or  ly, 
instead  of  the  French  ment.  As  to  the  other  indeclina- 
ble parts  of  speech,  our  language  being  sufficiently  rich 
in  its  own  resources,  has  borrowed  nothing  from  France 
except  an  interjection  or  two.  The  nouns  substantive 
in  the  French  language  (as  in  all  the  Romance  dialects) 
had  dropped  their  case  endings  long  before  the  period  of 
which  we  are  at  present  speaking,  but  such  of  them  as 
were  naturalized  in  England  acquired  a  genitive  case, 
according  to  the  corrupted  Saxon  form.  Th.Q plural 
number  was  also  new  modelled  to  the  same  form,  if  ne- 
cessary ;  for  in  the  nouns  ending  in  e  feminine  (as  the 
greater  part  of  the  French  did),  the  two  languages  were 
already  agreed.  N'ominative  flour,  genitive  flour es, 
plural  fljoures.  ]S^ominative  dam£,  genitiv^e  dam,es,  plu- 
ral dames.  On  the  contrary,  the  adjectives,  which  in 
"their  native  land  had  a  distinction  of  gender  and  num- 
ber, upon  their  naturalization  in  England  seem  generally 
to  have  lost  both,  and  to  have  assumed  the  simple  form 
of  the  English  adjective,  without  case,  gender,  or  num- 
ber. The  French  verbs  laid  aside  all  their  differences  of 
conjugation  ;  accorder,  souffrir,  recevoir,  descendre  were 
regularly  changed  into  accorden,  suffren,  receiven,  de- 
scenden.  They  brought  with  them  only  two  tenses,  the 
present  and  the  past,  nor  did  they  retain  any  peculiarity 
of  inflexion  which  could  distinguish  them  from  verbs  of 
Saxon  origin.      The  participle  of  the  present  time,  in 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  IN  THE  AGE  OF  CHAUCER.     93 

some  verbs,  appears  to  have  preserved  its  French  form, 
as  usant^  suffisant.  The  participle  of  the  past  time 
adopted  almost  universally  the  regular  Saxon  termina- 
tion in  ed,  as  accorded^  received,  descended.  It  even  fre- 
quently assumed  the  prepositive  particle  ^q  (or  y,  as  it 
was  afterwards  written),  which,  among  the  Saxons,  was 
generally,  though  not  peculiarly,  prefixed  to  that  parti- 
ciple. 

Upon  the  whole  it  may  be  affirmed  that  at  the  time  of 
which  we  are  speaking,  although  the  structure  of  our 
language  was  still  Saxon,  the  vocabulary  was  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  French.  The  Conquest  (1066)  intro- 
duced many  novelties ;  the  mechanical  arts,  the  civil 
law,  the  sciences,  geography,  medicine,  alchemy,  astrol- 
ogy, all  brought  with  them  their  respective  nomen- 
clatures derived  from  the  French  and  Latin  tongues. 
The  poets,  who  generally  have  the  principal  share  in 
moulding  and  refining  a  language,  introduced  a  great 
number  of  words  from  France.  As  they  were,  for  a  long 
period,  chiefly  translators,  this  expedient  saved  them 
the  trouble  of  seeking  out  the  cognate  terms  in  Saxon. 
The  French  words  were  descended  from  a  polished 
language,  and  were  much  better  adapted  to  metrical  uses 
than  the  Saxon;  the  final  syllables  of  the  French 
chimed  together  with  more  frequent  consonances,  and 
its  accentual  system,  which  tended  to  place  the  stress  of 
the  voice  upon  the  final  syllable,  was  better  adapted  to 
rhyming  verse.* 

*  Tyrwhitt's  Introduction  to  Chaucer. 


CHAPTEE  XI. 

THE  AGE  OF  CHAUCER  AND  GOWER. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  we  indicated  the  general 
condition  of  the  language  about  the  time  of  Chaucer 
and  Gower.  We  must  now  consider  that  particular 
form  of  the  language  in  which  their  works  were  com- 
posed. This,  in  consequence  of  their  influence  and 
popiilaritj,  as  well  as  the  excellence  and  the  superiority 
of  their  poetry,  acquired  the  preeminence  as  the  standard 
of  literature,  and  constituted  the  King's  English,  or  lit- 
erary form  of  the  tongue.  Henceforth  the  other  dialects 
descend  to  mere  patois,  and  all  other  English  gradually 
becomes  provincial. 

The  brilliant  genius,  the  lofty  social  position  of  Chau- 
cer, as  well  ^s  his  harmonious  adjustment  of  the  native 
and  foreign  element  in  the  vocabulary,  and  his  fine  ver- 
bal discrimination,  were  principally  instrumental  in  ele- 
vating the  East  Midland  dialect  to  the  ascendency.  The 
fame  of  Gower  rests  principally  upon  the  accuracy  and 
precision  of  his  rhyme  and  vocabulary,  which  contributed 
efficaciously  to  determine  the  form  of  the  language. 
The  greater  part  of  his  works  was  composed  in  French ; 
in  literary  merit  he  was  far  inferior  to  his  great  contem- 
porary, nor  does  he  appear  to  have  written  in  English 
until  encouraged  by  his  example.  The  language  which 
Chaucer  adopted,  and  which  by  his  influence  became  the 
standard  form  of  the  speech,  was  the  East  Midland  dia- 


THE  AGE   OF  CHAUCER   AI^D   GOWER.  95 

lect,  in  which  Orm  and  Eobert  of  Brunne  had  also  writ- 
ten. This  dialect,  formed  by  the  blending  of  Anglian 
and  Danish  terms  and  constructions,  had  gradually  ex- 
tended further  and  further  southward,  until  it  supplanted 
the  original  Southern  speech,  which  had  steadily  receded 
before  its  irresistible  advance.  Its  complete  ascendency, 
however,  was  not  established  until  long  after  the  time 
of  Chaucer.  During  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  the  lan- 
guage manifested  a  strong  tendency  to  resolve  itself  into 
its  dialectic  forms.  IN^orthern  terms  and  idioms  again 
appeared,  and  it  was  reserved  for  a  Kentish  man  and 
his  printing-press  to  consummate  the  task  which  had 
been  commenced  by  Robert  of  Brunne  and  continued 
by  Wycliffe  and  Chaucer.  The  East  Midland  dialect,  as 
we  have  pointed  out,  had  assumed  a  simple  analytic 
form,  like  our  modern  English.  This  was  in  great 
measure  owing  to  its  attrition  with  the  Danish  speech 
and  the  consequent  falling  away  of  its  inflections.  It 
had  largely  absorbed  the  French  element,  had  been  cul- 
tivated by  Orm,  a  rare  genius  and  our  first  orthoepical 
reformer,  and  in  the  hands  of  Robert  of  Brunne  it 
assumed  a  character  which  differs  slightly  from  our 
modern  idioms.  In  the  time  of  Chaucer  it  had  become 
the  literary  language  of  London  and  of  Oxford,  and  was 
current  among  persons  of  courtly  rank  and  in  the  higher 
classes  of  society.  It  combined  all  the  essential  elements 
of  a  great  language.  The  vigour  of  the  antique  Roman, 
the  heroic  enterprise  of  the  Dane,  the  versatile  genius 
of  the  iNTorman,  were  felicitously  blended  in  the  compo- 
sition of  the  races  by  whose  commingling  the  speech  of 
Spenser  and  of  Shakspere  was  gradually  formed.  The 
French  element  had  been  in  great  measure  introduced 
before  the  commencement  of  Chaucer's  literary  career, 


96  HISTORY  OF  THE   ENGLISH.  LANGUAGE. 

and  was  probably  familiar  to  the  greatest  number  of 
those  for  whom  he  wrote.  "We  have  elsewhere  endea- 
voured to  defend  him  from  the  old  and  oft-repeated  com- 
plaint of  corrupting  the  purity  of  his  native  tongue  by 
the  introduction  of  French  words. 

The  necessities  of  metre  and  of  rhyme,  which  had 
now  become  an  established  feature  of  English  verse ;  the 
fearful  losses  which  the  poetic,  moral,  and  intellectual 
vocabulary  of  Anglo-Saxon  had  sustained  during  the 
long  period  of  its  depression ;  its  scarcity  of  rhyming 
words,  rendered  recourse  to  the  tongue  of  France  indis- 
pensable to  poetic  success.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
French  words  employed  by  Chaucer  and  Gower  are 
those  which  have  the  rhyming  syllables  at  the  end  of 
the  lines.  Chaucer,  then,  did  not  introduce  into  the 
English  tongue  French  words  which  it  already  rejected, 
but  he  impressed  the  greater  part  of  those  previously  in 
use  with  the  sanction  of  his  authority,  and  thus  invested 
them  with  all  the  rights  of  native-born  English  vocables. 
He  was  not  the  creator  of  our  vocabulary,  but  rather  its 
umpire  or  arbiter,  and  by  his  happy  faculty  of  selection 
and  his  appreciation  of  the  necessities  of  the  speech,  he 
constructed  out  of  existing  materials  a  literary  diction 
which,  in  all  the  essentials  of  poetic  art,  was,  at  that  era, 
unsurpassed  in  any  of  the  cultivated  languages  of 
Europe.  The  excellence  of  Chaucer's  judgment,  and 
his  perfect  comprehension  of  the  needs  of  the  language, 
are  strikingly  illustrated  by  the  fact  that,  of  the  French 
words  found  in  his  writings,  not  much  above  one  hun- 
dred have  become  obsolete,*  while  a  much  greater  num- 

*  Of  the  Frencli  words  introduced  by  Langlande,  many  took  no 
root,  such  as  brocage,  creaunt,  fenestres,  devoir,  losengerie.  In  senti- 
ment and  poetic  spirit  there  is  a  much  closer  connection  between 


THE   AGE   OF   CHAUCER   AND   GOWER.  97 

ber  of  Anglo-Saxon  words  contained  in  his  works  have 
fallen  completely  into  disuse.  In  fact,  the  number  of 
French  words  introduced  by  Chaucer  is  much  fewer 
than  is  commonly  supposed,  and  his  rare  discrimination 
is  manifest  in  his  selection  of  native  as  well  as  of  foreign 
terms.  English  he  employed  from  preference  ;  French, 
from  the  metrical  defects  of  the  Saxon  and  the  conse- 
quent necessity  for  recourse  to  French  models  of  versifi- 
cation ;  and  his  deviations  from  the  pure  English  idiom 
are  of  rare  occurrence.  The  language  of  Gower  does 
not  differ  essentially  from  that  of  l^is  great  contempo- 
rary. It  is  not  so  purely  English  in  style,  and  it  con- 
tains a  larger  proportion  of  French  words.  His  real 
merit  is  that  of  a  linguistic  refiner,  rather  than  a  poet  of 
genuine  excellence ;  and  .his  precise  and  accurate  rhyme 
exercised  a  marked  influence  in  moulding  and  determin- 
ing the  literary  form  of  the  language. 

Piers  the  Plowman  and  Chaucer  than  exists  between  Chaucer  and 
Gower,  who  have  little  in  common  except  that  they  compose  in  the 
same  language,  and  in  a  style  different  from  their  contemporaries 
and  predecessors.  The  true  distinction  between  Langlande  and 
Chaucer  is  linguistic  rather  than  poetic ;  the  former  seems  to  have 
blended  imperfectly  the  conflicting  elements  in  the  vocabulary, 
while  his  illustrious  successor  has  fused  them  so  skilfully  and  har- 
moniously, that  the  foreign  terms  appear  as  native-born  words.  The 
one  was  a  genuine  poet ;  the  other  was  not  only  a  poet,  but  a  word- 
artist  of  unsurpassed  penetration  and  perception. 

5 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE  AGE  OF  CHAUCER  AND  GOWER  (contluued). 

Under  the  guidance  of  Chaucer,  the  tongue  of  Eng- 
land advanced  at  once  to  that  preeminence  which  it 
maintains  among  the  languages  of  Europe.  Its  vocabu- 
lary, hitherto  unregulated  and  j&uctuating,  was  now  re- 
duced to  order;  one  form  of  speech  constituted  the 
standard  of  literary  composition;  its  metrical  capabili- 
ties were  tested  and  expanded ;  the  age  of  English  litera- 
ture had  fairly  commenced. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  understand  the  true  rela- 
tion of  English  to  its  various  patois  or  provincial  dia- 
lects. The  patois  were  those  dialects  of  the  language 
which  received  no  perceptible  infusion  of  Frencli,  but 
remained  unaifected  by  foreign  admixture.  It  must  not 
be  supposed,  however,  that  they  passed  into  mere  pro- 
vincial forms  without  leaving  any  distinct  impression 
upon  the  standard  speech.  On  the  contrary,  many  of 
the  characteristic  peculiarities  of  the  literary  idiom  are 
traceable  to  dialectic  influence.  Their  impress  is  espe- 
cially perceptible  in  our  complex  and  discrepant  system 
of  orthography,  whose  anomalies  are  clearly  due  to  the 
fusion  of  many  dialects  into  one,  and  the  preservation  in 
the  standard  tongue  of  their  orthographical  diversities 
and  discordances. 

The  writings  of  Chaucer  and  Gower  were  the  first 
specimens  of  truly  national  as  well  as  truly  English 


THE   AGE   OF   CHAUCER  AND    GOWEE.  99 

literature.  An  harmonious  and  generally  received  lan- 
guage, a  unity  of  national  spirit,  writings  comprehensive 
in  their  scope  and  character,  and  discussing  topics  intel- 
ligible to  the  majority  of  educated  persons,  are  the 
indispensable  conditions  of  a  truly  national  literature. 
These  conditions  were  fulfilled  during  the  latter  half  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  and  in  great  measure  by  the 
influence  of  Chaucer  and  Gower.  It  is  from  this  period 
that  we  must  date  the  commencement  of  that  magnifi- 
cent and  incomparable  literature  which  is  the  richest 
inheritance  of  the  English-speaking  race. 

The  poetic  models  upon  whom  Chaucer  founded  his 
style  were  principally  those  of  France.  They  were 
everywhere,  perhaps,  still  regarded  as  the  classic  poetry 
of  modern  times;  and  the  younger  poetry  of  Italy, 
which  was  derived  from  the  same  common  source, 
had  not,  with  all  its  excellence,  either  supplanted  the 
ballads  and  romances  of  the  trouveres  and  troubadours, 
or  even  attained  a  corresponding  eminence.  The 
earliest  English,  as  well  as  the  earliest  Italian,  poetry 
was  principally  imitated  or  translated  from  that 
of  France.  The  greater  part  of  the  poetry  written 
in  the  French  language  during  the  eleventh,  twelfth, 
and  thirteenth  centuries,  was  written  in  England 
for  English  readers,  and  to  a  considerable  extent 
by  native  poets.  French  poetry,  during  this  period, 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  regarded  as  a  foreign 
literature,  and  even  at  a  subsequent  era  it  must  have 
been  considered  by  every  cultivated  Englishman  as  prop- 
erly belonging  to  his  own  land.  For  a  hundred  years 
before  the  time  of  Chaucer,  perhaps  even  longer,  the 
majority  of  English  versifiers  had  been  occupied  in 
translating  the   French   romances    into    English,   now 


100  HISTORY  OF   THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

gradually,  but  steadily,  becoming  the  common  speech,  of 
the  educated.  These  translations  were  executed  with 
little  accuracy,  and  were  designed  merely  to  render  the 
meaning  of  the  original  intelligible  to  the  English 
reader.  During  the  latter  half  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, at  which  time  Chaucer  began  to  write,  the  French 
had  nearly  disappeared  as  a  general  medium  of  commu- 
nication ;  the  English,  on  the  contrary,  had  improved  ^ 
decidedly  in  precision,  regularity,  and  in  general  adapta- 
tion to  the  purposes  of  literary  composition.*  Chaucer 
was  probably  more  indebted  to  the  Troubadour  or  Pro- 
vencal poets  than  to  any  o^her  foreign  sources,  for  pol- 
ished and  appropriate  models  of  poetic  style.  Under 
the  guidance  of  this  wonderful  race  of  minstrels,  poetry 
had  attained  an  artistic  elegance  and  perfection  unsur- 
passed, if  not  unapproached,  in  ancient  or  modern  ages, 
and  from  the  lovely  land  of  Provence  the  inspiration  of 
the  Muse  had  extended  into  many  distant  climes ;  the 
Troubadour  poetry  supplied  the  models  upon  which  that 
of  Germany,  Italy,  and  that  of  their  successors,  the 
Trouveres  of  Northern  France,  were  constructed. 
Their  influence  upon  the  literature  of  mediaeval  Europe 
was  immense ;  they  were  the  acknowledged  standards 
of  poetic  excellence,  and  it  was  among  them  that  the  lit- 
erature of  modern  times  first  appeared,  radiant  with 
hope  and  vigour,  after  the  long  and  dreary  period  , 
that  had  intervened  since  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Em-  I 
pire. 

The  two  periods  in  Provencal  or  Troubadour  history 
extend  from  the  second  half  of  the  eighth  century  to 
1080,  and  from  1080  to  1350.     Of  these,  the  second  is 

*  Craik's  Englisli  Literature. 


THE  AGE  OF   CHAUCER  AKD   GOWEE.  101 

by  far  the  more  important,  as  it  was  during  this  era  that 
the  Provencal  poetry  flourished  in  its  greatest  excellence 
and  popularity.  The  Anglo-Korman  literature,  intro- 
duced into  England  by  the  conquerours,  had  two  points 
of  contact  with  the  Provengals ;  one  of  which  was  fur- 
nished by  its  general  and  indirect  relations  to  France ; 
the  other,  through  the  Kings  of  England,  who  had  be- 
come Dukes  of  France,  and  who  maintained  habitual 
communication  with  several  of  the  provinces  of  the 
South. .  The  literature  of  the  Provencals  had  thus  two 
avenues  open  by  which  to  penetrate  into  Great  Britain. 
Henry  II.  and  his  sons  distinguished  themselves  by  their 
zeal  for  the  encouragement  of  the  Troubadours.  His 
queen,  Eleanor  of  Gruienne,  drew  several  of  them  after 
her,  and,  among  others,  one  of  the  most  famous,  Bernard 
de  Yentadour.  ISTotwithstanding  these  propitious  in- 
fluences, the  Provencals  exerted  but  little  effect  upon 
the  Anglo-Korman  literature.  The  latter  can  show 
nothing  which  can  be  compared  with  the  lyrical  produc- 
tions of  the  former.  As  to  poetical  romances,  the  Anglo- 
l^ormans  composed  several  of  them,  they  translated 
others,  and  they  were  acquainted  with  several  more 
through  the  medium  of  French  translations.  By  the 
side  of  this  Anglo-Norman  literature,  which  was  proper- 
ly that  of  the  court  and  the  conquerours,  there  arose 
another  in  the  language  of  the  country,  and  this  was  the 
literature  of  the  people.  The  Provencal  literature  is 
more  apparent  in  the  latter  than  in  the  former.*  It  was 
upon  the  models  furnished  by  these  brilliant  and  gifted 
versiflers  that  Chaucer  refined  our  native  tongue, 
smoothed  down  its  roughness,  expanded  its  capabilities, 

*  Fauriel's  "  History  of  Proven9al  Literature." 


102  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

developed  its  metrical  powers,  and  polished  its  modes 
and  styles  of  versification. 

As  we  have  already  pointed  out,  alliteration  was  the 
essential  characteristic  of  Anglo-Saxon  verse,  though 
rhyme  was  occasionally  employed.  Rhyme  appears  to 
be  the  form  which  poetry  spontaneously  assumes ;  it  is, 
in.  fact,  coeval  with  poetry  itself.  Its  existence  was  as 
well  known  to  Yirgil  and  Horace  as  to  Dryden  and 
Pope.  It  was  resorted  to  in  ancient  Roman  poetry, 
both  in  compositions  of  an  elevated  and  dignified  char- 
acter, and  in  caricature,  satire,  and  ribaldry.  ''  It  may 
be  discovered  in  Homer,  in  JEschylus,  in  Horace,  and 
Ovid.  Its  employment  is  commented  upon  by  Cicero 
and  Quintilian,  and  the  Greek  rhetoricians.  It  is  found 
in  Prudentius,  in  Leo  Diaconus,  and  in  nearly  all  the 
intervening  Latin  poets,  before  it  appears  in  full  blos- 
som in  the  hymns  of  the  middle  ages.  With  the  disre- 
gard of  quantity,  the  obscuration  of  inflections,  and  the 
increasing  instability  of  accent,  among  mixed  and  im- 
perfectly educated  races,  rhyme  became  a  customary 
and  almost  indispensable  ornament  of  verse  in  the  later 
Latin  and  Greek."  But  in  the  classic  poetry  of  an- 
tiquity, the  rhythmical  principle  exerted  too  great  an  in- 
fluence to  allow  the  rhyme,  as  a  rhetorical  element,  to 
attain  that  influence  which  it  gained  by  a  natural  pro- 
cess when  verses  began  to  be  measured  according  to  the 
modern  principle  of  rhetorical  accent.  Rhythm  showed 
its  influence  in  ancient  poetry,  not  only  in  the  single 
verses,  but  in  the  composition  of  several  verses  of  a  dif- 
ferent size  and  fall,  into  an  organic  whole — the  strophe. 
To  the  inheritance  of  the  strophe,  and  its  development 
into  the  stanza,  mediaeval  poems,  and  especially  the  can- 
zas  of  the  Troubadours,  owe  their  greatest  interest.     To 


THE  AGE  OF  CHAUCEE  AKD   GOWER.  103  - 

the  relics  of  ancient  literature,  already  mentioned,  was 
added  the  rhyme,  defined  by  strict  rules  and  made  ob- 
ligatory, and  this  new  principle  contributed  not  a  little 
to  give  variety  and  harmony  to  the  highest  development 
of  mediaeval  poetry,  the  stanza.* 

In  Saxon  poetry,  alliteration  constituted  the  chief 
metrical  characteristic,  but  even  there,  rhyme  was  occa- 
sionally employed,  and  it  is  assuming  too  much  to  assert 
that  English  poetry  is  entirely  indebted  to  ITorman- 
Fronch  for  its  introduction,  as  it  was  known  and  prac- 
tised to  some  extent  before  the  Conquest.f  Among  the 
earlier  examples  of  its  use,  may  be  mentioned  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  rhymii^  poem,  discovered  by  Conybeare,  and 
written  about  the  close  of  the  tenth  century;  lines  in 
rhyme  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  upon  the  death  of 
William  the  Conquerour ;  and  a  rhyming  canticle,  com- 
posed before  1170.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  Laya- 
mon's  "  Chronicle  of  Brutus  "  appeared,  which  contained 
occasional  specimens  of  rhyming  verse. 

From  the  end  of  Henry  III.'s  reign  if  to  the  middle  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  soon  after  which  time  Chaucer 
began  to  write,  the  number  of  English  rhymers  had 
greatly  increased.  In  addition  to  several  with  whose 
names  we  are  acquainted — Robert  of  Gloucester,  Robert 
of  Brunne,  Richard  Rolle,  the  Hermit  of  Hamphole, 

*  North  British  Review,  January,  1871. 

f  Otfrid  of  Weissenberg,  who  flourished  about  870,  was  the  earli- 
est rhymer  in  any  of  the  modern  languages  of  Europe. 

X  The  decline  in  English  rhyme,  from  the  time  of  Henry  11.  to  the 
end  of  Henry  III.'s  reign,  is  accounted  for  by  the  supposition  that 
during  this  period  the  poets,  who  wrote  for  the  fashionable,  com- 
posed in  French,  scholars  in  Latin,  while  the  Saxon  poetry,  being 
intended  for  the  ignorant  classes,  was  of  a  very  inferior  character, 
and  has  fallen  into  oblivion. — Tyrwhitt's  Introduction  to  Chancer. 


104  HISTORY   OF  THE  ENGLISH  LAN^GUAGE. 

and  Lawrence  Minot — it  is  probable  that  many  of  tlie 
anonymous  authors,  or  rather  translators  of  the  popular 
poems,  called  Romances,  existed  during  this  era.  As 
their  poems  were  intended  for  recitation,  perhaps  to  be 
accompanied  by  music,  they  probably  were  more  atten- 
tive to  the  metre  than  to  the  rhyme. 

Such  was  the  general  condition  of  English  poetry 
about  the  time  that  Chaucer  entered  upon  his  literary 
career.  Rhyme  was  gradually  becoming  a  feature  of 
versification,  and  was  perhaps  as  generally  recognized 
as  blank  verse  was,  at  the  time  that  Shakspere  com- 
menced the  writing  of  his  dramas.  Although  its  intro- 
duction was  not  due  to  Korman-French  poetry,  its  gen- 
eral acceptance  and  popularity  were  greatly  accelerated 
by  its  superior  adaptation  to  the  purposes  of  metrical 
composition  in  a  language  like  the  French,  in  which  the 
stress  or  emphasis  is  placed  near  to  the  ultimate  syllable, 
or  upon  it. 

After  a  short  and  ineffectual  struggle,  as  well  as  an 
attempt  at  compromise,  between  the  ancient  alliterative 
system  and  the  new  rhyming  verse,  the  latter  prevailed, 
and  maintained  the  ascendency  until  the  latter  decades 
of  the  sixteenth  century. 

So  far  as  rhyme  was  concerned,  little  remained  to  be 
done  by  Chaucer  except  to  lend  the  sanction  of  his  au- 
thority to  the  example  of  his  predecessors,  and  by  his 
influence  rhyming  verse  was  firmly  established  as  an 
essential  element  in  our  poetry.  The  metrical  part  of 
our  language  was  capable  of  improvement  by  refining 
the  modes  of  versification  already  adopted,  as  well  as  by 
the  introduction  of  new  styles.  In  this  regard,  Chaucer 
rendered  illustrious  service.  He  was  the  introducer  of 
the  heroic  metre,  and  our  metrical  forms,  inspired  with 


THE   AGE   OF   CHAUCER   AN"D   GOWER.  105 

new  life  by  his  talismanic  touch,  rang  out  with  sweet 
notes,  as  clear  and  unfading,  after  the  flight  of  five  cen- 
turies, as  the  images  of  the  Canterbury  pilgrims. 

Having  thus  traced  the  rise  and  formation  of  the 
King's  English,  under  the  guidance  of  Chaucer,  and,  in 
a  less  degree,  of  Gower,  let  us  see  if  we  may  not  at  least 
catch  the  echo  of  those  melodious  sounds  whose  dulcet 
symphonies  preluded  the  future  glories  of  the  English 
tongue. 


CHAPTEK  XIII. 

THE   PRONUNCIATION   OF  THE    ENGLISH   LANGUAGE    IN    THE 
AGE   OF   CHAUCEK. 

"With  regard  to  the  pronunciation  of  Anglo-Saxon, 
little  can  be  ascertained.  It  is  probable  that  it  resembled 
that  of  Latin,  and  its  accentual  system,  which  placed  the 
stress  of  the  voice  upon  the  root,  and  not  upon  the  in- 
flected syllables,  caused  the  first  syllables  to  be  more 
forcibly  enunciated  than  the  last.  In  this  respect  it  pre- 
sented a  direct  contrast  to  the  French,  which  tended  to 
place  the  stress  of  the  voice  toward  the  end  of  the  word. 
By  the  influence  of  the  Korman  Conquest,  a  new  accent- 
ual system  was  introduced,  which,  towards  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century,  began  to  manifest  itself  in  the  written 
speech.  The  vocabulary  of  the  French  language  is,  to  a 
great  extent,  composed  of  Latin  words  which  have  lost 
their  inflectional  endings,  generally  the  atonic  or  unac- 
cented syllables.  For  example,  the  French  noun,  recep- 
tion, is  derived  from  the  accusative  case  of  the  Latin  noun, 
reception-em,  by  rejecting  the  inflected  or  unaccented 
syllable.  The  accented  syllable  of  the  Latin  thus  became 
the  flnal  syllable  of  the  French  word,  and  also  the  one 
upon  which  the  stress  of  the  voice  was  laid.  When 
such  words  were  transferred  from  French  to-  English, 
they  brought  with  them  their  native  accentuation ;  and 
as  accent  is  much  stronger  in  English  than  in  French, 
the  flnal  syllable  was  doubtless  much  more  distinctly 
pronounced  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter  language. 


PRONUNCIATIO:S"   IN   THE   AGE   OF   CHAUCER.  107 

By  the  introduction  of  the  accentual  system  of  the 
French  tongue,  a  disturbing  element  entered  into  our 
orthoepy,  and  the  contest  between  the  Gothic  and  Ro- 
mance tendencies  in  English  is  not  yet  harmoniously  con- 
cluded. French  accentuation  even  affected  pure  Eng- 
lish words;  and  we  find  wisliche  iov  wis'liche,  hegy fi- 
ning', endyng\  absence!,  mercy',  grayer' ,  conquerour', 
etc.  Many  French  words,  when  Anglicized,  receive  a 
variable  accent,  as  fcrr't/une,  fortune',  con'tre,  contree', 
statue,  and  statue! .'^ 

In  the  days  of  Chaucer,  the  pronunciation  of  English, 
so  far  as  it  is  now  possible  to  reclaim  it,  seems  to  have 
been  as  follows : 

A=ah,  as  in  father ;  the  Latin  and  Continental 
sound  of  a.  The  present  sound  of  a,  as  in  wait,  late, 
was  not  established  until  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  A  shortfall,  the  short  sound  of  ah,  not  now 
used  in  received  English,  but  common  in  the  provinces, 
Continental  short  a.  The  present  very  different  pronun- 
ciation, as  a  in  cat,  was  not  in  vogue  until  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Aa,  the  same  as  a  long.  Ai=aA'ee,  a 
diphthong,  consisting  of  ah,  pronounced  briefly,  but  with 
a  stress,  and  gliding  on  to  ee  in  one  syllable ;  the  Ger- 
man sound  of  ai,  and  the  French  ai.  The  modern  sound 
of  ai,  as  in  wait,  was  not  in  use  before  the  seventeenth 
century.     Au=ah'oo,  a  diphthong  consisting  of  ah,  pro- 


*  This  will  be  apparent  to  any  one  who  will  observe  the  varying 
pronunciation  of  sucli  words  as  contem'plate,  con'template,  demon'- 
strate,  dem'onstrate,  con'versant,  convers'ant,  etc.  It  was  only  in 
the  last  generation  that  Rogers  remarked,  "  Bal/cony  (pronounced 
before  balco'ny)  is  bad  enough,  but  con'template  makes  me  sick." 
In  the  United  States,  this  tendency  to  place  the  accent  as  far  aa 
possible  from  the  end  of  the  word  is  especially  marked. 


108  HISTORY   OF  THE   EN^GLISH   LANGUAGE. 

nounced  briefly,  but  with  a  stress,  and  gliding  on  to  oo 
in  one  syllable ;  not  now  in  use ;  the  German  au,  the 
French  aou.  The  modern  sound  of  au,  as  Paul,  was 
not  established  until  the  seventeenth  century.  Aw= 
Au.     Ay=Ai. 

B  was  pronounced  as  at  present. 

C=:k  before  a,  o,  u,  or  any  consonant,  and  equal  to 
s  before  e,  i,  y.  It  was  never  sounded  sh,  as  in  the 
present  sound  of  vicious,  which  then  formed  three  dis- 
tinct syllables,  vi-ci-ous.  Ch  was  pronounced  as  ch,  in 
such,  cheese. 

D  was  pronounced  as  at  present. 

E  long,  as  e  in  there,  ai  in  pair,  a  in  dare ;  that  is,  as 
ai  is  now  pronounced  before  r,  or  rather  more  broadly 
than  before  any  other  consonant,  and  without  any  ten- 
dency to  run  into  ee,  nearly  French  e.  The  sound  of  e 
in  eel  was  not  established  until  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  E  short,  like  e  in  met,  pen,  e  final, 
like  e,  or  short  e,  lightly  and  obscurely  sounded,  as  the 
final  e  in  the  German  eine,  "  herrliche,"  "  gute,"  gabe. 
This  sound  was  always  used  in  prose  when  final  e  was 
the  mark  of  some  final  vowel  in  older  forms  of  the  lan- 
guage, when  it  marked  oblique  cases,  feminine  genders, 
plural  inflections  of  verbs,  etc.  But  in  poetry  it  was 
regularly  elided  altogether  before  a  following  vowel,  and 
before  he^  Ids,  A«m,  hire^  equal  to  her,  here  equal  to 
their,  hem  equal  to  them,  and  sometimes  before  hath, 
hadde,  have,  hem,  here,  equal  to  here.  It  was  never 
sounded  in  hire  equal  to  her,  here  equal  to  their,  oure 
equal  to  our,  youre  equal  to  your,  and  was  often  omitted 
in  hadde  equal  to  had,  were,  time,  more.  It  was  seldom 
omitted  when  necessary  for  the  rhyme  and  metre,  and 
for  force  of  expression  in  other  positions,  especially  when 


PEONUKCIATIOH   m  THE   AGE   OF   CHAUCEK.  109 

it  replaced  an  older  vo>vel,  or  marked  an  oblique  case,  as 
in  German.  Its  pronunciation  fell  into  disuse  during 
the  fifteenth  century.  Ea  had  the  same  sound  as  long  e, 
like  ea  in  break,  great,  wear ;  it  was  seldom  used  except 
in  ease  and  please.  The  modern  sound  of  ea,  as  ee  in 
eel,  was  not  in  vogue  until  the  eighteenth  century.  Ee 
the  same  as  long  e,  as  e'e  in  e'er,  it  frequently  occurs. 
The  modern  sound  of  ee  was  not  in  general  use  before 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century ;  ei  equal  to  ai,  with 
which  it  is  often  interchanged  by  scribes.  The  modern 
sound,  as  ee,  dates  from  the  eighteenth  century.  Eo 
equal  to  long  e,  seldom  used  but  in  people,  often  spelled 
pepel.  The  modern  sound  of  eo,  as  ee,  came  into  use 
during  the  sixteenth  century.  Es  final,  mark  of  the 
plural,  was  generally  sounded  as  es  or  is.  Eu  equal  to  ui 
in  Scotch  puir,  the  long  sound, of  French  u,  German  ii 
in  all  words  of  French  origin.  This  assumed  the  sound 
of  our  modern  eu  in  the  seventeenth  century.  In  words 
not  derived  from  French,  eu  equal  to  ai'oo,  a  diphthong 
consisting  of  ai,  pronounced  briefly,  but  with  a  stress, 
and  gliding  on  to  oo  in  one  syllable,  as  in  Italian  Europa. 
Ew  equal  ui  in  Scotch  puir,  or  else  ai'oo  precisely  as  eu. 
Ey,  the  same  as  ay,  with  which  it  is  constantly  inter- 
changed by  scribes.  The  modern  sound,  as  ee,  belongs 
to  the  eighteenth  century.  ' 

F,  as  at  present. 

G,  equal  to  g  hard  in  all  non-French  words ;  equal  to 
j  before  e,  i,  in  words  of  French  origin.  Ge  final,  or 
before  a,  o,  in  French  words  equal  to  j  ;  the  e  is  some- 
times omitted.  Gh  equal  to  kh,  the  Scotch  and  German 
sound  of  ch. 

H,  initial,  as  at  present,  but  probably  generally 
omitted  in  unaccented  he,  his,  him,  hire  equal  to  her, 


110  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

hem  equal  to  them,  and  often  in  hath,  hadde,  have,  just 
as  we  still  have,  I've  told  'em,  and  in  some  French 
words,  as  host,  honour,  etc.,  probably  omitted  as  now. 
H  final  represents  a  very  faint  sound  of  the  guttural 
kh,  into  which  it  dwindled  before  it  became  entirely- 
extinct. 

I  long  was  not  at  all  the  modern  sound  of  i ;  it  was 
the  lengthened  sound  of  i  in  still,  almost,  but  not  quite, 
ee ;  compare  still  and  steal  in  saying,  Still  so  gently  o'er 
me  stealing ;  I  short  equal  to  i  in  pin,  pit ;  I  consonant 
equal  to  j.  le,  the  same  as  long  e,  with  which  it  is 
often  interchanged.  The  modern  sound  of  e  dates  from 
the  seventeenth  century. 
K,  as  at  present. 

L,  as  at  present.     Lh  equal  to  simple  1.  , 

M,  as  at  present.         -  I 

N,  as  at  present ;  not  nasalized  in  French  words  as 
now.  Ng  had  three  sounds  as  at  present;  as  in  sing, 
singer,  linger,  change. 

Oa  equal  to  a  in  boar,  o  in  more,  with  a  broader  sound 
than  oa  in  moan,  or  o  in  stone.     G  short  equal  to  6a, 
the  Continental  short  o,  but  not  so  broad  as  modern  o  in 
got,  which  was  not  established  till  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury.    Oa  probably  not  in  Chaucer ;  it  was  introduced 
for  long  o  in  the  sixteenth  century.     Oe  occurs  very 
rarely ;  same  as  long  e.     Oi  equal  to  oo'ee,  a  diphthong 
consisting  of  the  sound  of  oo  pronounced  briefly,  but 
with  a  stress,  gliding  on  to  ee  in  one  syllable.     Oo  equal 
to  long  o;  often  interchanged  with   it.     The  modern    i 
sound  of  00  in  pool  dates  from  the  middle  of  the  six-   \ 
teenth  century.      On  had  three  sounds  which  may  be 
thus  distinguished :  ou  equal  to  oo,  where  it  is  now  pro-    j 
nounced  as  in  loud;  ou  equal  to  ii,  where  it  is  now  pro-   J 


PRON'Ul^CIATIOJ^'  IN  THE  AGE 

nounced  as  in  double  j  o.u  equal  to  oa'oo,  where  it  is  now 
sometimes  pronounced  oh'oo,  as  in  soul.  Ow  equal  to  ou. 
Oi  equal  to  oi. 

P,  as  at  present.     Ph  equal  to  f,  as  now. 

Qu,  as  at  present. 

E,  as  in  ring,  herring,  carry;  always  trilled;  never 
now  as  in  car,  serf ,  third,  cord.  Ke  final,  probably  the 
same  as  er,  except  when  e  was  inflectional.  Kh  equal 
to  r,  as  at  present. 

S  was  more  frequently  a  sharp  s  when  final ;  then 
was,  is,  all  had  s  sharp.  But  between  two  vowels,  and 
w^hen  the  final  es  had  the  e  omitted  after  long  vowels  or 
voiced  consonants,  it  was  probably  z,  a  letter  sometimes 
interchanged  with  s,  but  rarely  used.  S  was  never  sh 
or  zh,  as  at  present ;  thus,  vision  had  three  syllables, 
vi-si-on.     Sell  equal  to  sh  in  shall.     Sh  as  now. 

T,  as  at  present,  but  final  tian,  was  in  two  syllables, 
si-ion.  Th  had  two  sounds,  as  in  thine,  then ,  probably 
sounded  as  now. 

IT  long  occurred  only  in  French  words,  and  had  the 
sound  of  French  u,  German  ii.  The  modern  sound  of  i^ 
in  tune  was  not  introduced  until  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. 

y  consonant  equal  to  v.  Y  vowel  equal  to  u.  Y  con- 
sonant, as  at  present. 

W  vowel  was  used  in  diphthongs  as  a  substitute  for  u, 
and  sometimes  absolutely  for  oo,  as  wde  equal  to  oode ; 
herberw  equal  to  herberoo.     W  consonant,  as  at  present. 

Y  vowel,  long  and  short,  had  just  the  same  sound  as  I 
long  and  short.     Y  consonant,  probably  as  now. 

Z  equal  to  z,  as  now,  and  never  zh.* 

*  Ellis's  Early  Englisli  Pronunciation  ;  Morris's  Chaucer. 


CHAPTEE  XIY. 

THE   YOOABULAEY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

Having  traced  the  historical  development  of  the  Eng- 
lish tongue  from  its  crude  beginnings  among  the  Ger- 
manic and  Scandinavian  colonists  of  Angle-land  to  the 
period  of  its  full  fruition  under  the  culture  of  Chaucer, 
Gower,  and  Wycliffe,  we  must  endeavour  to  ascertain, 
as  accurately  as  possible,  the  elements  by  whose  blend- 
ing the  language  was  gradually  formed,  the  time,  the 
manner,  and  the  conditions  of  thefr  introduction. 

The  vocabulary  of  the  English  language,  while  it  has 
incorporated  elements  drawn  from  nearly  all  the  known 
languages  of  the  world,  is  principally  composed  of  Teu- 
tonic or  Germanic,  Keltic,  Latin,  and  Bomance  con- 
stituents. "We  shall  consider  them  principally  with 
reference  to  the  period  of  their  introduction,  and  in  the 
following  order :  First,  the  Keltic ;  Second,  the  Latin, 
with  its  Romance  descendant,  the  French ;  Third,  the 
Saxon  or  Germanic;  Fourth,  the  Danish  or  Scandina- 
vian ;  Fifth,  the  Greek  ;  Sixth,  the  words  derived  from 
miscellaneous  sources.* 

*  In  enumerating  tlie  elements  of  the  vocabulary,  I  have  thought 
it  best  to  classify  French  as  part  of  the  indirect  Latin  element,  al- 
though it  necessitates  a  departure  from  the  chronological  order, 
Saxon,  in  point  of  time,  coming  before  French. 


THE  VOCABULARY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.      113 


The  Keltic. 

It  is  a  prevalent  misapprehension  that  the  Kelts,  the 
primitive  inhabitants  of  Britain,  were  almost  extirpated 
by  the  Saxon  invaders,  and  that  the  language  and  the 
people  faded  away  without"  leaving  a  perceptible  impres- 
sion upon  the  tongues  and  the  nationalities  by  which 
they  were  supplanted.  But  this  is  at  variance  with  the 
facts;  many  local  names  in  England,  and  some  in 
America,  attest  the  influence  of  the  Keltic  races,  and 
remind  us  forcibly  of  their  long  sway  in  those  lands  in 
which  English  is  now  the  dominant  speech,  while  the 
number  of  designations  of  the  most  common  articles, 
occurring  in  every  day's  ordinary  intercourse,  strikingly 
recalls  their  memory  and  their  presence. 

Local  names  derived  from  Keltic :  Avon,  Derwent, 
London,  Ouse,  Medlock;  Aber,  prefixed  to  names  of 
places  on  or  near  the  water,  Aherdeen,  Aherconway, 
Havre  /  Yar  or  Gar,  in  Yarhorough,  Yarmouth,  Yar~ 
combe;  the  same  word  occurs  in  Garonne,  Garumna 
river ;  Penrose,  Pendell,  Torhay,  Torquay,  Arden,  Ar- 
dennes ;  Nant,  in  Nantes,  Bangor ;  Isle  of  Wight,  Isle 
of  Man. 

A  number  of  Keltic  terms  were^  introduced  into  Anglo- 
Saxon,  and  have  thus  passed  over  into  the  English. 
Such  are,  brock  (badger),  breeches,  clout,  cradle,  crock, 
crook,  glen,  kiln,  mattock. 

Keltic  words  still  existing  in  English :  ballast,  boast, 
bod-(kin),  bog,  bother,  bribe,  cam  (crooked,  used  by 
Shakspere),  crag,  dainty,  dandriff,  darn,  daub,  dirk,  gyve, 
havoc,  kibe,  log,  loop,  maggot,  mop,  motley,  mug,  nog- 
gin, nod,  pillow,  scrag,  spigot,  squeal,  squall. 

Keltic  words  of  recent  introduction :  bannock,  bard. 


114  HISTOEY  OF  THE  ElfGLISH  LAKGtJAGE. 

brogue,  elan,  claymore  (great  sword),  clog,  log,  Druid, 
gag,  pibroch,  plaid,  pony,  shamrock,  slab,  whisky. 

A  number  of  Keltic  words  were  brought  over  to  Eng- 
land in  the  Norman-French  tongue,  and  consequently 
pei-petuated  in  the  English.  The  N'orthern  Erench, 
which  was  a  Neo-Latin  dialect,  contained  several  thou- 
sand Keltic  words,  many  of  which  are  retained  in  the 
standard  French  language.  The  widely  extended  pre- 
dominance of  the  Keltic,  its  contact,  and  to  some  extent, 
its  commingling  with  the  Latin,  produced  by  war,  con- 
quest, and  colonization,  caused  it  to  enter  into  the  l^eo- 
Latin  or  Romance  dialects,  as  a  modifying  element ;  and  it 
maybe  laid  down  as  a  general  rule,  that  whatever  grammat- 
ical differences  exist  between  the  ancient  Latin  and  the 
Neo-Latin  tongues  of  Gaul,  are  traceable  to  its  influence.* 
Many  of  the  characteristic  peculiarities  of  the  French, 
are  clearly  of  Keltic  origin.  Again,  as  nearly  all  French 
words,  not  derived  from  Latin  or  Teutonic  sources,  have 
their  roots  in  the  Keltic,  so  nearly  all  English  words,  not 
derived  from  the  Teutonic,  the  French,  the  classic  lan- 
guages, the  Scandinavian  tongues,  nor  from  the  raiscellane 
ous  sources  hereafter  to  be  indicated,  are  of  Keltic  origin. 

Keltic  words  introduced  by  I^or man-French  :  bag, 
barren,  barter,  barrator,  barrel,  basin,  basket,  bassinet, 
bonnet,  bucket,  boots,  bran,  brisket,  button,  chemise,  clap- 
per, dagger,  gravel,  gown,  harness,  marl,  mitten,  motley, 
osier,  pot,  possnet,  rogue,  ribbon,  skain  (skein),  tike. 

Latin  of  the  First  Period,  b.  c.  55-a.  d.,44:T. 

The  Latin  words  in  the  vocabulary  of  the  English  lan- 
guage were  introduced  at  different  epochs,  and  under 

*  Sclineider,  GescMcte  der  Englisclien  Sprache. 


THE  YOCABULARY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.      115 

different  linguistic,  literary,  and  political  conditions. 
The  First  Roman  Period  embraces  the  interval  between 
the  invasion  of  Britain  by  Julius  Caesar,  b.  c.  55,  and 
the  final  withdrawal  of  the  Roman  legions,  a.  d.  447. 

"With  regard  to  the  Latin  words  introduced  during  this 
period,  a  diversity  of  opinion  exists.  The  majority  of 
the  historians  of  the  language,  and  of  writers  upon  the 
Science  of  Language,  incline  to  the  belief,  that,  except 
a  few  military  terms  and  local  names — stratum,  street, 
(Stratford),  cester,  castrum,  Lancaster,  Gloucester,  coin, 
colonia,  Lincoln,  pont,  pons,  Pont-e-fract,  (Pom-fret) — 
our  tongue  received  no  accessions  from  the  Latin  during 
the  long  period  of  Roman  dominion.  But  with  all  pos- 
sible deference  to  the  judgments  of  the  accomplished 
scholars  who  adopt  this  view,  it  seems  unsupported  by 
trustworthy  historical  testimony,  and  directly  at  variance 
with  the  evidence  of  the  language  itself. 

The  general  diffusion  of  the  Latin  language  was  one 
of  the  most  potent  auxiliaries  employed  by  the  Roman 
power  in  the  extension  of  its  sway,  and  in  assimilat- 
ing the  conquered  provinces  to  the  Roman  character.* 
Community  of  language  and  of  laws  constituted  a  pow- 
erful instrument  in  welding  together  into  a  coherent  and 
organized  mass  the  various  races  and  nationalities,  over 

*  "  Rarely,  if  ever,  did  the  barbarian  conqueror  dare,  when  acting  as 
a  ruler,  to  speak  his  native  language  ;  he  endangered  his  royal  caste 
unless  he  comported  himself  like  a  Roman  on  the  throne  ;  the  very 
sound  of  the  Latin  language  implied  supremacy  and  command.  The 
Latin  was  the  only  recognized  vehicle  of  official  business  in  the 
Romano-barbarian  states  ;  the  sovereigns  of  Teutonic  blood  promul- 
gated their  laws,  asserted  their  prerogatives,  bestowed  their  bounties, 
or  rebuked  their  people,  in  the  language  of  the  Caesars.  Capitulars, 
statutes,  rescripts,  charters,  all  public  documents,  are  written  in  La- 
tin."— Palgrave's  Anglo-Saxon  Commonwealth. 


116  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LAN^GUAGE. 

which  the  symbols  of  her  empire  were  gradually  extend- 
ing. The  Latin  by  degrees  supplanted  the  native 
dialects  throughout  the  provinces,  and  there  is  no  reason 
that  Britain  should  have  formed  an  exception  to  the 
general  rule.  The  historical  testimonies  are  abundant  to 
the  effect  that  Britain  was  thoroughly  Romanized,  and 
received  an  abiding  impress  of  Roman  arts,  culture,  and 
language.  After  the  reign  of  Claudius,  the  rigour  of 
Roman  tyranny  seems  to  have  yielded  to  a  milder  and 
more  tolerant  policy  ;  and  when  the  privileges  of  Roman 
citizenship  were  conferred  upon  all  the  Provincials  by 
Caracallus,  the  Briton  entered  upon  the  possession  of 
his  rights  without  molestation.  The  long  intervals  of  si- 
lence respecting  the  affairs  of  Britain,  attest  the  tranquil- 
lity of  the  island,  and  the  prosperity  of  its  inhabitants, 
consequent  upon  the  relaxation  of  Roman  rule,  and  there 
are  many  unmistakable  indications  of  friendly  intercom- 
munication between  conquerors  and  conquered.  The 
readiness  with  which  the  islanders  acquired  the  language, 
as  well  as  the  arts,  the  culture,  and  the  elegancies  of 
the  capital,  is  especially  commented  upon  by  Tacitus, 
and  seems  to  have  excited  his  wonder,  if  not  to  have 
aroused  his  suspicion.  The  Latin  tongue,  the  great 
medium  of  literature,  of  diplomacy,  and  of  intercourse, 
was  acquired  with  eagerness,  and  the  youth  of  Britain 
became  ambitious  of  excelling  in  eloquence.  In  Gaul  it 
had  superseded  the  Keltic,  and  the  forensic  skill  of  the 
Gauls  passed  over  the  Channel  into  the  neighbouring 
land.  It  was  almost  impossible  that  Britain  should  not 
have  been  imbued  with  a  strong  colouring  of  the  Roman 
tongue  ;  and  we  discover  that  a  very  considerable  num- 
ber of  words,  names  of  trees,  flowers,  herbs,  designations 
of  weights  and  measures,  and  of  the  ordinary  appliances 


THE  VOCABULAKY  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.      117 

of  daily  life,  were  introduced  into  the  Keltic  tongue  from 
Rome,  transferred  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  invaders  by  the 
Romanized  Briton,  and  are  thus  perpetuated  in  the  vo- 
cabulary^_^  the  English  language."^  The  following  are 
the  Latin  terms  introduced  into  the  island  duriug  the 
First  Roman  Period. 


Anglo-Saxon. 

Latin. 

English. 

Ince, 

Ulna, 

Ell. 

Mil, 

Mille  (passuum). 

Mile. 

Carta, 

Charta, 

Paper. 

Finn, 

Penna, 

Pen. 

Line, 

Linea, 

Line. 

Circol, 

Circulus, 

Circle. 

Demum, 

Damnum, 

Damage. 

Profian, 

Probare, 

Prove. 

Wed," 

Vadium, 

Pledge. 

Sign, 

Signum, 

Sign. 

Coc, 

Coquus, 

Cook. 

Cycene, 

Coquina, 

Kitchen. 

Disc, 

Discus, 

Dish. 

*  As  a  proof  of  the  extent  to  which  Britain  had  become  Roman- 
ized, it  may  be  said,  that  boxes  of  Roman  quack  medicines  are  still 
disinterred,  and  spurious  coin  is  found  in  quantities  that  induce  us 
to  regard  it  as  a  device  of  the  imperial  treasury.'  There  was  no 
country  which  received  a  deeper  impression  from  Roman  civilization 
and  Roman  architecture  than  Britain.  The  stately  towers,  the  thea- 
tres, the  baths,  which  remained  undestroyed  for  centuries,  exciting 
the  wonder  of  the  chronicler  and  the  traveller  ;  the  edifices  which, 
even  in  the  fourteenth  century,  were  so  numerous  and  so  magnifi- 
cent as  almost  to  surpass  any  others  on  this  side  of  the  Alps  ;  the 
numerous  legends  respecting  the  Trojan  origin  of  the  Britons, 
strikingly  attest  the  abiding  influence  of  the  Roman  occupation,  the 
intercommunication  and  commingling  of  Kelt  and  Roman,  and  the 
consequent  effect  of  the  speech  of  the  victors  upon  the  speech  of 
the  vanquished.  Upon  these  points  I  would  advise  the  student  to 
consult  Pearson's  "England  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  and  Palgrave's 
"  Anglo-Saxon  Commonwealth." 


118 


HISTOKY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


Anglo-Saxon. 

Latin. 

English. 

Taefl, 

Tabula, 

Table. 

Setl, 

Sedile, 

Seat. 

Synder, 

Cineres, 

Ashes. 

Cyse, 

Caseus, 

Cheese. 

Ele, 

Oleum, 

Oil. 

Eced, 

Acetum, 

Vinegar. 

Win, 

Vinum, 

V^ine. 

Ostre, 

Ostreum, 

Oyster. 

Cancer, 

Cancer, 

Crab. 

Candel, 

Candela, 

Candle. 

Cyl, 

Culeus, 

Sack. 

Cyst, 

Cista, 

Chest. 

Socc, 

Soccus, 

Sock. 

Ongul, 

Angulus, 

Hook. 

Balistas, 

Balista, 

Balista. 

Ceaster, 

Castrum, 

Camp. 

Port, 

Portus, 

Port. 

Straet, 

Strata, 

Street. 

Weall, 

Vallum, 

Wall. 

Mur, 

•  Murus, 

Wall. 

Tempel, 

Templum, 

Temple. 

Scolu, 

Scliola, 

School. 

Cite, 

Civitas, 

City. 

Municep, 

Municipium, 

A  borough. 

Carcern, 

Career, 

A  prison.   , 

Camp, 

Campus, 

A  field. 

Aecer, 

Ager, 

A  sown  field. 

Munt, 

Mons, 

Hill  (mount). 

Funt, 

Fons, 

Fountain. 

Lac, 

Lacus, 

Lake. 

Baron, 

Vir,  varo, 

A  man. 

Wencle, 

Ancilla, 

Maid. 

Wydewe, 

Vidua, 

Widow. 

Sol, 

Solea, 

A  sole  or  sandal. 

Scol-maegistre, 

Scholae  magister. 

Schoolmaster. 

Mynet, 

Moneta, 

Mint. 

Fund, 

Pondus, 

Pound. 

Elu, 

Ulna, 

Ell. 

Ince, 

Uncia, 

Ounce. 

Pil, 

Pilum, 

Dart. 

THE  VOCABULAET   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.     119 


Anglo-Saxon. 

Latin. 

English. 

Craesta, 

Crista, 

A  erest. 

Geoc, 

lugum. 

Yoke. 

Calc, 

Cale, 

Lime. 

Tern, 

Temo, 

Team. 

Spad, 

Spata, 

Spade. 

Fann, 

Vannus, 

Fan. 

r        Fore, 

Furea, 

Fork. 

Maeth, 

Messis  (meto). 

A  mowing. 

K     Pic, 

Pix, 

Pitch. 

;         Fraene, 

Freenum, 

Rein. 

Aer,  ee, 

^s,  aeris. 

Brass. 

Tigol, 

Tegula, 

Tile. 

Ancer, 

Aneliora, 

Anehor. 

Ort-geard, 

Hortus, 

Garden,  orchard. 

r         Rose, 

Rosa, 

Rose. 

J         Lilie, 

Lilium, 

Lily.    - 

Peru, 

Pyrus, 

Pear. 

K       Fie, 

Fieus, 

Fig. 

Casten-(bean), 

Castanns, 

Chestnut. 

Persoe-{treow), 

Persiea, 

Peaeh. 

'■'        Mor-(beain), 
*         Laur-(beam), 

Morus, 

Mulberry. 

Laurus, 

Laurel. 

Pine-(treow), 

Pinus, 

Pine. 

k        Bux, 

Buxum, 

Box-tree. 

Lin, 

Linum, 

Flax. 

s         Pipor,      . 

Piper, 

Pepper.. 

Pionie, 

Paeonia, 

Pseony. 

Cueumer, 

Cueumis, 

Cucumber. 

Cawe, 

Caulis, 

Cabbage. 

j         Eaedie, 

Radix, 

Radish. 

Sin-fulle, 

Cinquefolium, 

Cinquefoil. 

Mu], 

Mulus, 

Mule. 

Stemn, 

Stemma, 

Stem. 

Crisp, 

Crispus, 

Crisp. 

False, 

Falsus, 

False.* 

*  Pearson's  "  England  in  the  Early  and  Middle  Ages."    Appendix 
to  Vol.  I. 


120  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


Latin  of  the  Second  Peeiod. 

The  Anglo-Saxons  were  converted  to  Christianity 
about  the  close  of  the  sixth  century.  Between  that 
time  and  the  !N'orman  Conquest  (1066),  many  Latin 
words  were  introduced,  pertaining  chiefly  to  ecclesiasti- 
cal affairs  and  the  ritual  of  the  church.  Mynster^  a 
minster,  monasterium  i  portic^Si  porch,  portions  j  cluster^ 
a  cloister,  claustrwin  /  munuc^  a  monk,  monaohus  /  Ms- 
c^(?^,  a  bishop,  ejpiscopus',  arcehisceop^  archbishop,  archie- 
jpiscopus  J  sanct,  a  saint,  sanctusj  jprofost^  a  provost,  'pro- 
positus  /  jpall,  a  pall,  pallium  /  calic,  a  chalice,  calix  / 
jpsalter,  a  psalter,  psalterium  y  maesse,  a  mass,  missa  / 
pistel,  an  epistle,  epistola  /  praedician^  to  preach,  prcB- 
dicare.  Also  the  designation  of  some  foreign  plants  and 
animals;  camell,  a  camel,  camelus j  ' elylp,  elephant,  ele- 
phas  y  "peterselige,  parsley,  petroseli/num  y  f^fo'rf'^y^i 
feverfew,  febrifuga,    . 

Third  Latin  Period. — Medieval  Latinity. 

The  influence  of  the  Mediaeval  Latinity  has  profound- 
ly affected  the  vocabulary  of  the  English  language. 
Throughout  the  dark  and  middle  ages  Latin  constituted 
the  medium  of  jurisprudence,  of  theology,  of  the  scho- 
lastic philosophy,  and  of  science.  The  boundless 
variety  of  new  conceptions,  evoked  by  the  new  condi- 
tions of  society  in  the  process  of  transition  from  ancient 
to  modern  times,  demanded  adequate  forms  of  expres- 
sion. These  could  only  be  obtained  by  the  creation  of 
new  words  out  of  pre-existing  Latin  materials,  a  task 
which  was  gradually  accomplished  by  the  labours  of  the 
schoolmen,  the  ecclesiastics,  the  theologians,  and  the 


THE  VOCABULARY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.     121 

civilians.  Hence  arose  that  strange  product  known  as 
Mediaeval  Latin,  in  which  are  embodied  the  far-reach- 
ing wisdom  of  Roger  Bacon,  the  manly  sentiments  of 
Grostete,  and  which  has  tended  essentially  to  enrich  the 
vocabulary  of  the  English  tongue."^ 

Our  Hedigeval  Latin  words  were  principally  intro- 
duced between  the  Conquest,  1066,  and  the  Revival 
of  Learning.  Their  number  and  character  have  not, 
thus  far,  been  accurately  determined. 

Many  Latin  words  were  introduced  by  the  chroniclers 
during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  A  large 
Latin  element  was  indirectly  introduced  through  the 
Gorman-French,  which  was  a  Neo-Latin  or  Romance 
dialect. 

FouKTH  Latin  Peeiod. — Fkom  the  Revival  of  Litee- 

ATUKE   to   THE   FrESENT    TiME. 

This  includes  Jhe  Latin  words  which  originated  in  the 
writings  of  scholars,  reformers,  and  of  learned  men  in 
general.  The  words  introduced  during  this  period  may 
be  distinguished  from  those  of  the  preceding :  First.  They 

*  The  rise  of  theology,  scholastic  philosophy,  and  jurisprudence, 
demanded  an  immense  number  of  new  words  for  the  adequate  ex- 
pression of  the  new  ideas  which  they  had  called  into  existence.  The 
Latin  tongue  was  remarkably  defective  in  abstract  nouns ;  these 
were  supplied  principally  by  TertuUian  and  the  Latin  fathers  ; 
Jerome  contributed  powerfully  to  the  formation  of  ecclesiastical 
Latin  by  his  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  that  language  (Vul- 
gate) ;  the  schoolmen  introduced  many  philosophical  terms ;  the 
civilians,  many  legal  words  and  phrases.  Latin  was  the  general 
mecMum  of  learning  and  of  science  for  a  long  period  even  after  the 
Revival  of  Learning.  It  was  within  a  comparatively  recent  era  that 
the  vernacular  tongues  of  Europe  were  advanced  to  that  preemi- 
nence which  they  occupy  at  present. 

6 


122  HISTORY  OF  THE   ElJ^TGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

retain  more  accurately  the  form,  and,  in  many  cases,  the 
inflections  of  the  original  language.  Not  having  passed 
through  the  French,  they  are  free  from  that  compres- 
sion and  attenuation  of  form  which  is  produced  by  the 
action  of  phonetic  decay.  Second.  They  relate  to^  Objects 
and  ideas  for  which  the  increase  in  the  range  of  science 
and  of  learning  required  expression.  The  Latin  ele- 
ment introduced  through  the  French,  and  that  which  is 
derived  directly  from  the  original,  may  be  illustrated  by 
comparing  the  following  words. 

Ancestor  and  antecessor^  sampler  and  exemplar^  heni- 
son  and  henediction^  conceit  and  conception,  constraint 
and  construction,  defeat  and  defect,  forge  and  fabric, 
integer  and  entire,  invidious  and  efivious,  extra/neous 
and  strange,  fact  and  feat,  malison  and  malediction, 
Tnayor  and  major,  nourishment  and  nutriment,  poor 
and  pauper,  orison  and  oration,  proctor  smd  procurator, 
purveyance  and  providence,  ray  and  radius,  respite  and 
.  respect,  retreat  and  retract,  sir  and  senior,  surface  and 
superficies,  sure  and  secure,  treason  and  tradition. 

From  the  Latin  we  obtain  a  large  proportion  of  our 
moral  and  intellectual  vocabulary,  our  terms  for  tlie  ex- 
pression of  abstract  relations  and  conceptions.  The 
Latin  words  may  generally  be  distinguished  from  those 
of  native  growth  by  the  class  of  ideas  which  they  de- 
note, by  their  greater  length  (the  Saxon  words  being  on 
an  average  less  than  half  as  long  as  the  Latin),  and  by 
their  peculiar  prefixes  and  suffixes,  a  list  of  which  is  in- 
serted. Latin  prefixes:  a,  ah,  dbs,  from,  as  <3^vert,  ah- 
jure ;  ad,  a,  ac,  af  ag,  al,  an,  ap,  ar,  as,  at,  to,  as  ad- 
duce,  accQdQ,  aff^x ',  ante,  before,  as  aw^^cedent;  circum, 
about,  as  circumjacent;  con,  co,  cog,  col,  com,  cor,  to- 
gether,  with,    as    coniorm.,   coUoqnj,    coeval;     contra. 


THE   VOCABULAEY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.     123 

against,  as  contradict;  de,  down,  from,  as  descend,  de- 
fame ;  dis,  asunder,  as  dissever,  disruipt ;  e,  ex,  out  of, 
^ccpel,  e]eci ;  extra,  be^^ond,  as  ^a^^r^ordinary ;  in,  ig,  il, 
im,  ir  (when  prefixed  to  a  verb),  in,  as  mduce ;  (when 
prefixed  to  an  adjective),  not,  as  mvidious;  inter,  be- 
tween, as  interYene ;  intro,  within,  as  introduce ;  oh,  oc, 
of,  op,  for,  in  the  way  of,*  as  (?^pose,  ^fend ;  per, 
through,  as  permesite ;  post,  after,  as  ^6>5^script ;  pre, 
before,  as  ^r^cede ;  preter,  beyond,  as  preternsLturdl ; 
pro,  for,  forward,  project,  provide;  're,  back,  again, 
reuAt,  retwxn ;  retro,  backwards,  as  retro^x2,de ;  se,  aside, 
as  <?6cede ;  sine,  without,  as  sinecure ;  sub,  sue,  suf,  sug, 
sup,  sus,  under,  after,  as  succeed,  ^-wJaltern,  sufUce,  sug- 
gest, sup'povt,  sus-pect;  super,  above,  as  supersede; 
trans,  beyond,  as  transcend ;  ultra,  beyond,  as  ultra- 
montane.  The  following  terminations  are  derived  from 
the  Latin  or  French :  able,  ible,  cle.  He,  ial,  al,  ian,  an,  ant, 
ent,  fy,  lar,  ity,  or,  ose,  cnis,  sion,  tion,  tive,  tude,  ture. 
But  the  Latin  has  not  merely  furnished  our  intel- 
lectual and  philosophical  terms ;  it  has  thoroughly  pen- 
etrated the  structure  of  our  tongue,  and  has  assimilated 
itself  to  its  genius  and  character,  so  that  if  the  skeleton 
is  Gothic,  the  texture  is  Romance  and  Latin.  It  has 
contributed  essentially  to  the  affluence  of  our  speech  in 
a  great  diversity  of  ways ;  to  the  dialect  of  busy,  active 
life,  of  daily  intercourse,  to  the  vocabulary  of  the  mer- 
chant, of  the  banker,  and  the  mechanio,  as  well  as  to  the 
stately  and  elaborate  diction  of  the  historian  or  the  phi- 
losopher. Observe  the  vocabulary  of  the  man  of  busi- 
ness, and  see  how  large  a  proportion  of  it  is  drawn  from 
the  Latin :  account,  balance,  hank,  hanker,  bankrupt,  bill, 
cancel,  calculate,  capital,  claim,  clerk,  count,  compute, 
credit,  currency,  debt,   debit,   debtor,  deficit,  discount, 


124  HISTOEY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LAN^GUAGE. 

due,  entry,  finance,  fiscal,  inTc,  invoice,  interest,  insure, 
insurance,  liquidate,  money,  negotiate,  note,  pay,  par, 
per  cent.,  policy,  premium,  profit,  security,  sum, 
specie. 

The  pre-eminently  monosyllabic  character  of  English 
is  commonly  attributed  to  the  existence  of  the  same 
feature  in  Anglo-Saxon,  together  with  its  method  of  in- 
flection by  letter  change,  and  not  by  the  addition  of  a 
formative  element,  d  or  ed.  A  more  diligent  examina- 
tion, however,  will  convince  us  that  our  monosyllables 
are,  to  a  considerable  extent,  due  to  the  Latin,  and  that 
they  are  produced  by  the  agency  of  sound  decay,  the 
consequent  compression  of  syllables,  rejection  of  medial 
consonants,  and  dropping  of  inflections.  The  following 
list  of  monosyllabic  words  derived  from  Latin,  or  from 
Latin  through  the  French,  some  of  which  are  designa- 
tions of  familiar  objects  and  ordinary  appliances,  shows 
how  largely  the  Latin  has  contributed  to  the  practical 
vocabulary  of  our  language,  as  well  as  to  its  intellectual 
wealth :  act,  air,  aunt,  apt,  a/rt,  arm,  age,  aim,  hoTik, 
halm,  hench,  heat,  hox  (tree),  lill,  hull,  howl,  hrief,  cant, 
care,  cure,  cat,  cave,  clause,  cell,  cent,  chest,  crest,  crisp, 
clock,  chief,  camp,  carp,  chart,  chaste,  cheese,  cooh,  choMce, 
car,  course,  clea/r,  cleric,  clairfi,  count,  cede,  cease,  chain, 
corpse,  crown,  close,  cuhe,  code,  crate,  case,  crude,  dish, 
dish,  desh,  dech,  duct,  dulce,  debt,  doubt,  due,  date,  dame, 
dire,  edge,  err,  face,  fact,  feat,  fig,  feign,  fame,  fan, 
fate,  fount,  front,  fail,  fraud,  form,  fort,  fruit,  frail, 
fume,  fianie,  fuse,  fork,  firm,  few,  grade,  grain,  grave, 
grand,  gem-,  globe,  grace,  hour,  ink,  inch,  isle,  ire,  join, 
joke,  joy,  joint,  just,  judge,  lake,  lamp,  lance,  land, 
large,  lapse,  line,  lure,  light,  league,  mass  (missa),  mass 
(massa),  mere,  merse,  merge,  mint,  mule,  monk,  mile. 


THE   VOCABULARY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.     125 

muse,  mob,  mx)ve,  neWy  neck,  noun,  oil,  ounce,  pay,  pass, 
pace,  pan,  paint,  pain,  point,  punch,  par,  peer,  pear, 
peach,  pen,  pitch,  plume,  place,  please,  poor,  plaint, 
peace,  price,  preach,  prey,  pray,  post,  parch,  part, 
parse, pine  {\xq^,  porch,  plain,  plane,  pest,  press,  print, 
prime,  proof,  prove,  port,  plank,  pl>ant,  pall,  pope, 
prone,  prose,  prude,  pound,  pure,  pole,  queer,  quaint, 
quart,  quest,  rage,  round,  rein,  rude,  rare,  ram,  ruin, 
rose  (noun,  not  the  preterite  tense  of  rise),  rule,  sacJc, 
seal,  sign,  sense,  seat,  siege,  site,  spend,  state,  stain,  sting, 
stray,  strict,  string,  sound,  scarce,  screen,  search,  sconce, 
scorch,  sire,  spy,  sir,  sure,  sock,  suave,  soil,  safe,  surge, 
serve,  serf  sole,  stem,  strange,  scourge,  style,  sage,  scale, 
scan,  spade,  sum,  spice,  scribe,  spoil,  square,  star,  team, 
tend,  tempt,  test,  tin,  thin,  tile,  toast,  tract,  trait,  tribe, 
trite,  use,  urn,  vast,  vale,  vile,  vein,  vain,  vent,  verge, 
verse,  vest,  vine,  vice,  wade,  waste,  wine,  yoke. 

The  Fkench  Element  in  English. 

A  great  number  of  French  words  were  introduced  by 
the  Conquest.  To  the  Korman-French  we  are  indebted 
for  many  of  the  terms  relating  to  feudalism,  to  war,  the 
church,  the  law,  and  the  chase. 

First.  Aid,  arms,  armour,  assault,  banner,  baron, 
buckler,  captain,  chivalry,  challenge,  fealty,  fief,  gallant, 
homage,  lance,  mail,  march,  soldier,  tallage,  truncheon, 
tournament,  vassal. 

Second.  Altar,  bible,  ceremony,  devotion,  friar,  hom- 
ily, idolatry,  interdict,  penance,  prayer,  relic,  religion, 
sermon,  scandal,  sacrifice,  tonsure. 

Third.  Assize,  attorney,  case,  chancellor,  court,  dower, 
damages,  estate,  fee,  felony,  fine,  judge,  jury,  mulct, 
parliament,  plaintiff,  plea,  plead,  statute,  sue,  tax,  ward. 


126  HISTORY  OF  THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

Fourth.  Bay,  brace,  chase,  couple,  copse,  course, 
covert,  falcon,  forest,  leash,  leveret,  mews,  quarry,  rey- 
nard,  rabbit,  tiercet,  venison. 

From  the  Gorman-French  period  descended  a  great 
number  of  terms  'expressive  of  malignant  passion  and 
hatred.  The  bitterness  and  virulence  aroused  by  for- 
eign sway,  the  reciprocal  hatred  and  distrust  gen- 
erated by  the  Conquest,  are  strikingly  reflected  in  the 
speech  of  this  era.  Eascal,  villain,  ribald,  ribaldry, 
descend  to  us  from  those  days  of  mutual  animosity  and 
disparagement.  "Almost  all  the  sinister  and  ill-favoured 
words  in  the  English  language  at  the  time  of  Shakspere 
owe  their  origin  to  this  unhappy  period." 

The  predominance  of  the  French  as  the  social  lan- 
guage of  Europe,  as  the  language  of  fashion,  of  diplo- 
macy, and  etiquette,  has  from  time  to  time  caused  the 
adoption  of  many  French  words,  some  of  which  have 
been  completely  naturalized,  while  others  reveal  their 
origin. 

From  the  French  our  tongue  has  acquired  much  of 
its  elegance  and  precision,  many  of  its  characteristic 
graces,  and  its  faculty  of  indicating  things  naturally 
offensive  or  repugnant,  whose  direct  mention  would  not 
comport  with  perfect  delicacy,  either  of  manner  or  ex- 
pression. The  Anglo-Saxon,  notwithstanding  its  vigour 
and  plasticity,  lacked  polish  and  refinement ;  its  terms 
were  direct,  energetic,  but  often  coarse  and  inelegant. 
This  defect,  certainly  a  serious  one,  the  Latin  and  its 
French  descendant  have  to  a  great  degree  remedied, 
and  our  accessions  in  this  respect  are  among  the  most 
valuable  contributions  to  the  wealth  of  our  language. 

French  words : — Aide-de-camp,  accoucheur,  accouche- 
ment,  attache,   au    fait,  belle,   bivouac,    belles-lettres, 


THE  VOCABULAKY  OF  THE  EN-QLISH  LAN-GUAGE.     127 

billet-doux,  badinage,  blase,  bon  mot,  bouquet,  brochure, 
bonhomie,  blonde,  brusque,  busk,  coif,  coup,  debut, 
debris,  dejeuner,  depot,  eclat,  elite,  ensemble,  ennui, 
etiquette,  entremets,  facade,  foible,  fricassee,  gout, 
interne,  omelet,  naive,  naivete,  penchant,  nonchalance, 
outre,  passe,  persiflage,  personnel,  precis,  prestige,  pro- 
gramme, protege,  rapport,  redaction,  renaissance,  re- 
cherche, seance,  soiree,  trousseau.* 

The  _  vocabulary  of  French  contains  a  number  of 
words,  Teutonic  in  origin,  which  were  introduced  by 
the  Franks,  a  German  tribe,  and  afterwards  Romanized 
more  or  less  to  adapt  them  to  the  pronunciation  of  the 
Roman  inhabitants  of  Gaul.  From  France  they  passed 
over  to  England,  and  have  thus  been  perpetuated  in  the 
vocabulary  of  our  tongue.  Such  words  are  ambassador , 
attack^  attire^  halcony,  belfry,  bivouae,  cTiamherlwin^ 
choice,  defile,  enamel,  eschew,  guide,  guile,  guise,  haunt^ 
herald,  massacre,  jpoclcet,  quiver,  reward^  ring,  rob, 
seize,  slate,  towel,  wage,  ward. 

*  Morris's  "  English  Accidence." 


CHAPTEK  XY. 

THE  VOCABULARY  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE  {cOTltinUed). 


The  Anglo-Saxon  or  Teutonic  Element  in 
English. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  constitutes  the  groundwork,  the 
material  substratum,  of  the  English  tongue.  Nearly  all 
the  distinctive  characteristics  of  English  grammar  are 
derived  from  this  source.  The  following  are  Saxon : 
First.  The  definite  article,  the,  and  the  indefinite,  an,  a  / 
all  pronouns,  personal,  relative,  demonstrative,  etc.,  and 
the  numerals.  Second.  All  auxiliary  and  defective 
verbs.  Third.  Nearly  all  the  prepositions,  and  the  con- 
junctions. Fourth.  JSTouns  forming  their  plurals  by 
change  of  vowel,  as  man,  men,  etc.  Fifth.  Yerbs  form- 
ing their  past  tense  by  change  of  vowel  (irregular  verbs, 
sing,  sang,  sung).  Sixth.  Adjectives  forming  their  de- 
grees of  comparison  irregularly,  good,  had  j  in  short,  all 
those  peculiarities  of  our  grammar  generally  designated 
irregular,  which  is  merely  an  arbitrary  expression  to  in- 
dicate ancient  Saxon  forms  and  usages,  and  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  later  or  regular  formations. 

Second.  1.  Grammatical  inflections ;  plural  suffixes  s 
and  en.  2.  Yerbal  inflections  of  past  and  present 
tenses  of  active  and  passive  participles.  3.  Suffixes 
denoting  degrees  of  comparison. 

Third.  I.  Numerous  suffixes  of  nouns,  as  hood,  ship, 
down,  th^  ness,  ing,  ling,  hing^  ook.     2.  Of  adjectives, 


w 


THE  VOCABULARY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.     129 

ft  as  ful,  less,  ly,  en,  ish,  some,  ward,  y.  3.  Of  verbs, 
as  e7i.  4.  Many  preiixesj  as  a,^  al,  he,  *  for,  ful,  on, 
over,  out,  under.  5.  The  names  of  the  three  elements, 
earth,  fire,  water  (air  is  Latin  aer),  and  of  their  changes  ; 
the  names  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  sun,  moon^  etc.,  except 
star  (Latin  sterula) ;  of  many  of  the  divisions  of  time,  as 
morning,  evening,  twilight,  noon,  night,  day,  sunrise, 
sunset :  some  of  these  are  probably  of  Latin  origin,  as 
hour,  hora.  From  the  Saxon  we  have  acquired  the 
names  of  many  of  the  most  striking  natural  phenomena, 
heat,  cold,  light,  frost,  snow,  hail,  rain  j  also  the  names 
of  the  most  prominent  and  attractive  objects  in  external 
nature,  ~  as  sea,  land,  hill,  dale,  wood,  stream.  The 
Anglo-Saxon  has  also  furnished  us  with  the  designations 
of  most  of  the  seasons,  summer,  winter,  spring,  fall, 
{autumn  is  from  the  Latin  auctumnus),  with  the  names 
of  the  organs  of  the  body,  the  modes  of  bodily  action 
and  posture,  the  most  familiar  animals,  many  of  the 
words  employed  in  the  ordinary  intercourse  of  life, 
many  of  the  terms  pertaining  to  traffic,  commerce,  to 
the  market,  the  work-shop,  the  farm.  Also,  the  words 
acquired  in  infancy,  the  terms  spontaneously  evoked  by 
the  child  in  its  earliest  efforts  to  give  expression  to  its 
dawning  thoughts,  the  constituent  parts  of  saws,  maxims, 
and  proverbs,  are  chiefly  Anglo-Saxon.  The  names  of 
the  dearest  relations,  father,  mother, \  sister,  lyrother, 
husband,  wife  y  of  the  objects  suggestive  of  the  tenderest 
memories,  the  holiest  affections,  home,  hearth,  fireside, 
child,  hindred,  friends,  are  inherited  from  the  Saxon. 
The  names  of  the  simpler  emotions  of  the  mind,  terms 

*  a  and  he  are  sometimes  Norse. 

f  Grand  father,  grand  mother,  are  lialf  Saxon,  lialf  Romance ; 
aunt,  imcle,  entirely  Romance. 

6* 


130  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

of  pleasantry,  satire,  indignation,  invective,  and  anger, 
are  principally  of  native  growth.  The  designations  of 
special  modes  of  performing  an.  action  of  specific  proc- 
esses, are  mainly  Saxon,  while  the  generic  or  abstract 
terms  are  to  great  extent  Latin.  Thus,  move,  the  general 
term,  is  Latin,  but  the  specific  and  varied  methods  of 
performing  the  action  are  indicated  by  words  of  Saxon 
origin  :  run,  jurrvp,  shi/p,  icalh,  etc.* 

The  Anglo-Saxon  was  moulded  and  prepared  for  lit- 
erary application  by  scholars  who  wrote  and  spoke  Latin, 
and  who  regarded  it  as  the  standard  of  literary  excel- 
lence ;  its  literature  is  in  great  measure  translated  or 
imitated  from  the  Latin.  It  cannot  be  questioned  that 
Latin  exercised  a  powerful  influence  in  determining  the 
character  of  Saxon,  essentially  modifying  both  its  vocab- 
ulary and  syntax,  and  assimilating  it  more  and  more 
closely,  in  spirit  and  in  structure,  to  the  imperial 
tongue.  A  large  proportion  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  vocab- 
ulary finds  its  cognate  words  in  the  Latin  dictionary, 
and  there  can  exist  no  reasonable  doubt  that  it  was 
decidedly  Romanized  in  character.  Again,  the  Teutonic 
languages,  by  whose  gradual  commingling  on  the  soil 
of  Britain  the  Anglo-Saxon  was  formed,  were  in- 
debted to  the  Latin,  as  were  also  the  Keltic  tongues. 
Roman  conquest  and  colonization  had  made  their  im- 
pression upon  the  Teutonic  dialects  long  before  the 
Saxon  invasions  of  Britain.  In  addition  to  its  direct 
influence,  the  extent  of  which  is  not  properly  appreci- 
ated, the  Latin  has  perceptibly  affected  nearly  every 
language  and  dialect  that  has  contributed  to  the  forma- 
tion of  our  varied  and  copious  speech ;  it  has  imparted 

*  Edinburgh  Review,  1839,  1859. 


THE  VOCABULARY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LA^-GUAGE.     131 

a  tinge  of  its  own  colouring  to  nearly  all  the  manifold 
tributaries,  by  whose  commingling  English  has  acquired 
its  marvellous  affluence,  catholicity,  and  comprehensive- 
ness.    The  Roman  image  is  reflected  in  them  all. 

The  Danish  Element  in  the  English  Language. 

The  Danish  invasions  and  occupations  of  England 
extend  from  a.  d.  787  to  a.  d.  1042,  at  which  time  the 
Saxon  government  was  restored.  It  was  principally  the 
Anglo-Saxon  dialects,  and  not  so  much  the  literary 
speech  or  language  of  Wessex,  that  were  affected  by 
Danish  influence.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  Danes 
made  any  eflbrt  to  extend  or  to  perpetuate  their  tongue 
in  England.  The  Saxons  and  the  Scandinavian  races 
were  closely  related  in  language  as  well  as  by  blood ; 
there  was  a  Scandinavian  element  among  the  Saxon 
colonists  of  Britain,  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  the 
speech  of  the  two  nations  was  mutually  intelligible. 
The  Saxon  understood  the  Dane ;  the  Dane,  the  Saxon. 
This  opinion  finds  some  confirmation  in  the  well-known 
story  of  King  Alfred,  who  entered  the  Danish  camp  in 
the  guise  of  a  minstrel,  and  sang  his  songs  and  recited 
his  poems  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue.  This  at  least 
indicates  that  the  two  languages  possessed  marked  re- 
semblances. It  was  in  the  north  of  England  that  the 
Danish  tongue  made  the  deepest  impression.  ]^orth- 
umbria  longest  withstood  the  advance  of  the  victorious 
Korraans.  The  northern  counties  were  not  included  in 
the  great  survey  made  by  the  Conquerour  in  1085,  and 
in  these  regions  the  traces  of  Danisli  influence  are  most 
strongly  marked  and  enduring.  Many  Danish  words 
are  preserved  in  the  Northumbrian  speech,  and  many  of 
their  characteristic  peculiarities  of  grammatical  structure 


132  HISTORY  OF  THE  EN^GLISH  LANGUAGE. 

(in  which  they  differ  essentially  from  the  standard  Eng- 
lish) are  derived  from  the  Scandinavian  tongues.  The 
toanish  conquests  and  occupations  seem  to  have  affected 
[the  structure  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  more  than  the  vocabu- 
lary. In  the  north  and  east  of  England  the  Saxon  in- 
flections were  seriously  modified  by  Danish  influence ; 
their  decay  was  accelerated,  so  that  in  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries  nearly  all  the  older  inflections  of 
nouns,  verbs,  and  adjectives  had  disappeared,  while  in 
the  south  of  England  the  old  forms  survived  until  a 
mucli  later  period,  and  many  of  them  are  still  in  exist- 
ence. There  are  numerous  traces  of  Scandinavian 
terms  in  the  local  nomenclature  of  England,  in  the  Old 
English  literature  of  the  north  of  the  island,  as  well  as 
in  the  provincial  dialects  or  patois  of  IS'orthumbria.* 

*  Scandinavian  words  in  the  Nortliumbrian  dialects  : 
BarMe,  to  stick  to,  to  adhere,  to  cover  over. 
Brangle,  to  quarrel. 

Bunt,  to  take  home,  pack  up,  make  into  a  bundle. 
Glatcji,  a  brood  of  chickens. 
Creel,  a  frame  to  wind  yarn  upon,  English,  reel. 
Clem,  to  starve  ;  "I'm  almost  clemmed,"  i.  e.,  starved. 
Crib,  a  rack. 

Faddle,  nonsense,  trifling. 
Flit,  to  move  from  place  to  place. 
Gain,  gainer,  a  cross  cut. 
Gawby,  a  clownish  simpleton. 

Kick,  fashion,  mode  ;  "a  new  kick,"  i.  e.,  fashion ;  Dan.  s-kik. 
La/ra,  to  beat  soundly,  to  chastise. 
Mood,  satiated.  ^ 
Bostle,  to  ripen. 

Scar,  a  steep,  bare  rock  (Walter  Scott,  Lochinvar). 
Slunt,  to  be  idle. 

Wha^k,  a  heavy  blow. 

Whip  off,  to  go  oif  quickly. 

York,  to  strike  hard, — Schneider. 


THE  VOCABULARY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.     133 

Local  names  derived  from  Danish:  the  termination 
Jyrrtown,  Whitby^  Grimsby,  liughy  j  5y-law,  a  town 
law.  The  ending  son^  in  names  of  persons,  is  also 
Danish,  as  Hobson,  Johnson,  Nelson  /  the  endings  gill 
and  hirh,  as  Ormesgill,  Ormeshirh. 

"Words    derived    from    Danish    or    Scandinavian:* 

*  Scandinavian  peculiarities  in  the  grammar  of  the  Northumbrian 
dialects. — According  to  the  census  of  1861,  the  population  of  Eng- 
land was  18,954,444,  of  which  Northumbria  contained  5,580,834. 
It  embraces  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  territory  and  the  population 
of  England,  over  which  the  influence  of  the  Scandinavian  settlers 
is  still  distinctly  traceable.  The  Northumbrian  dialects,  though 
differing  as  to  the  number  of  words,  have  a  grammatical  system 
which  is  common  to  them  all,  though  it  departs  in  some  respects 
from  the  grammar  of  written  English.  Perhaps  their  most  remark- 
able characteristic  is  the  definite  article,  or  more  properly  the  de- 
monstrative pronoun  t,  which  is  an  abbreviation  of  the  old  Norse 
neuter  demonstrative  hit.  This  is  not  an  elision  of  the  he  from  the 
article  the  (which  is  of  old  Frisic  origin),  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
fact  that  all  the  Bonapartist  versions  *  of  Solomon's  Song,  second 
chapter,  first  verse,  uniformly  agree  throughout  England,  where 
they  abbreviate  at  all,  by  making  the  into  th'  by  eliding  the  final  e. 
We  quote  from  the  Westmoreland  version  (from  the  centre  of 
Northumbria),  which  is  well  executed  and  idiomatic.  We  select  as 
a  fair  specimen  the  second  chapter,  first  verse,  of  Solomon's  Song, 
which  in  the  authorized  version  reads  as  follows :  "  I  am  the  rose 
of  Sharon,  and  the  lily  of  the  valleys."  In  the  Westmoreland  ver- 
sion it  reads  thus :  "  I's  t'  roaz  o'  Sharon,  and  t-  lilly  o'  t'  valleys.'* 
The  districts  in  which  the  abbreviated  article  prevails  are  the  coun- 
ties of  Central  and  South  Durham,  all  Yorkshire,  and  nearly  all 
Lancashire.  The  next  characteristic  is  not  so  widely  extended,  be- 
ing confined  to  about  one-third  of  Northumbria.  This  is  the  substi- 
tution of  at  for  the  relative  that.  In  the  authorized  version,  Solo- 
mon's Song,  second  chapter,  fourteenth  verse,  we  read :  "  That  art 
in  the  clefts  of  the  rocks ; "  in  the  Westmoreland  it  is :  '*  At's  i'  t 


*  Prince  Lucien  Bonaparte  paid  much  attention  to  the  study  of  the  Northern 
English  dialects,  into  which  he  caused  the  second  chapter  of  Solomon's  Song  to 
be  translated. 


134  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LAIS^GUAGE. 

Abroad^  aslanty  athwart^  tang,  lash,  bellow,  bole  (of  a 
plant),  blunt,  booty,  bound  (for  a  journey),  brag,  hrinh, 
bull,  busk,  cake,  call,  cast,  clip,  clutnsy,  cross,  crook, 
cripple,  cuff,  curl,  cut,  dairy,  dash,  daze,  dazzle,  die, 
droop,  dub,  dull,  fellow,  fleer  (to  deceive,  Shakspere, 
Julius  Caesar),  flit,  fond,  fool,  fro,  froth,  gable,  gait, 
grovel,  glow,  hale  (to  drag.  Acts  of  tlie  Apostles,  eighth 
chapter,  third  verse),  hit,  hut,  hustings,  irk,  keg,  kid, 
kindle,  leap  (year),  low,  loft,  lurk,  niggard,  mump, 
m^umble,  much,  odd,  puck  (goblin),  ransack,  root,  scald 
(poet),  scare,  scold,  skull,  scull,  scant,  skill,  scrub,  skulk, 
sky,  sly,  screw,  sleeve,  sledge,  sled,  sleek,  screech,  shriek, 
sleight,  sprout,  stagger,  stag,  stack,  stifle,  tarn  (a  lake), 
trust,  thrive,  thrum,  unruly,  ugly,  uproar,  window, 
windlass."^ 


grikes  o'  t'  crags."  The  apliseresis  does  not  properly  belong  before 
the  at,  as  it  is  a  pure  Scandinavian  word.  In  the  use  of  the  verb  to 
be,  the  Northumbrian  follows  the  Scandinavian.  In  the  third  per- 
son plural,  present  tense,  they  use  the  singular  instead  of  the  plural 
form,  e.  g.,  Horses  is  dearer  than  cows  is.  They  inflect,  I  is,  thou 
is,  et  cet.,  adhering  to  the  Scandinavian  rule.  Another  peculiarity 
is  the  use  of  *  for  in  ;  this  is  pure  Scandinavian,  being  still  used  in 
Icelandic,  Danish,  and  Swedish.  From  these  few  citations,  we  may 
see  the  extent  to  which  the  Danish  has  penetrated  the  speech  of 
North umbria,  as  illustrated  by  five  of  the  most  common  words  in 
English,  the  representatives  of  tJie,  that,  in,  art,  and  am.  Their 
nouns  have  but  one  case,  having  dispensed  with  the  possessive  in- 
flection ;  for  instance,  they  say,  my  brother  hat,  instead  of  my 
brother's  hat.  Their  syntactical  structure  is  characterized  by  ex- 
treme brevity  and  simplicity,  sometimes  condeniriing  into  one  word 
an  idea  which  requires  for  its  proper  expression  in  English  two  or 
three.  Thus,  in  Solomon's  Song,  "  I  am  the,"  is  expressed  I'st.  The 
adjectives  are  distinguished  by  double  forms,  and  by  the  Scandina- 
vian superlative  form  st  instead  of  est. — From  "  Transactions  of  the 
London  Philological  Society." 
*  JThe  third  person  plural  of  the  verb  to  be,  are,  is  Danish. 


THE  YOCABULART   OF  THE  Eiq-GLISH   LAITGUAGE.     13^1  Tt] 

T^  the  Greek  language,  the  EngliS^s  /y?|h^te<454^ 
most  of  the  nomenclature  of  the  physical  sT 
proportion  of  the  vocabulary  of  theology,  philosophy, 
and  of  the  terms  employed  in  all  arts  and  scien<;es,  as 
well  as  a  number  of  familiar  terms.  The  Greek  has  also 
indirectly  affected  the  English  through  the  medium  of 
the  northern  tongiies,  whose  character  it  sensibly  modi- 
fied in  the  earliest  ages.  By  its  wonderful  plasticity  and 
faculty  of  combination,  the  Greek  supplies  appropriate 
designations  for  many  of  the  inventions,  discoveries,  and 
improvements  in  art  and  science :  e.  g,,  harometer^  ther- 
mometer,  stereoscope,  photography  telescope,  etc. 

Many  terms  pertaining  to  the  vocabulary  of  philoso- 
phy, science,  metaphysics,  logic,  have  lost  their  purely 
teclmical  import,  and  have  passed  into  the  language  of 
literature  and  the  speech  of  every-day  life:  corollary, 
element,  demonstrative,  antipodal,  atom,  genus,inference, 
tnean  hetween  extremes,  diametrically  opposite,  positive, 
negative,  inverse  ratio,  phenomenon,  idea,  qualitative^ 
quantitative,  species,  zenith,  and  many  others  which  oc- 
cur in  the  ordinary  conversation  of  all  intelligent  persons. 

WoKDs  Derived  fkom  Miscellaneous  Sources. 

In  addition  to  the  constituents  of  the  vocabulary  al- 
ready mentioned,  our  language  has  been  enriched  by  the 
naturalization  of  numerous  words  from  a  variety  of 
sources,  many  of  which  owe  their  introduction  to  the 
extension  of  commerce  and  the  predominance  of  Eng- 
land as  a  commercial  nation,  as  well  as  to  the  spirit  of 
maritime  "enterprise  which  pre-eminently  characterizes 
the  English  race. 

Hehrew :  Abbot,  amen,  cabal,  cherub,  jubilee,  phari- 
saical,  Sabbath,  seraph.  Shibboleth. 


136  HISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

Arabic:  Admiral,  alchemy,  alkali,  alcoliol,  alcove, 
alembic,  almanac,  amulet,  arsenal,  artichoke,  assassin, 
atlas,  azure,  bazaar,  caliph,  chemistry,  cotton,  cipher, 
dragoman,  elixir,  felucca,  gazelle,  giraffe,  popinjay,- 
slirub,  sofa,  syrup,  sherbet,  talisman,  tariif,  tamarind, 
zenith,  zero.  Arabian  culture  and  science  exercised  a 
powerful  influence  upon  the  literature  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Many  of  the  words  named  in  the  text  have  come 
into  English  through  one  of  the  Komance  dialects: 
admiral,  artichoke,  assassin,  popinjay. 

Persian:  Caravan,  chess,  dervish,  emerald,  indigo, 
lac,  lilac,  orange,  pasha,  sash,  shawl,  turban,  tafferty. 

Hindu :  Calico,  chintz,  dimity,  jungle,  boot,  muslin, 
nabob,  pagoda,  palanquin,  paunch,  pundit,  rajah,  rice, 
rupee,  rum,  sugar,  toddy. 

Malay :  Bantam,  gamboge,  orang  outang,  rattan,  sago, 
verandah,  tatoo  and  taboo  (Polynesian),  gingham  (Java). 

Chinese :  Caddy,  nankeen,  satin,  tea,  mandarin. 

Turkish:  Caftan,  chouse,  divan,  janissary,  odalisk, 
saloop,  scimitar. 

American:  Canoe,  cocoa,  hammock,  maize,  potato, 
squaw,  tobacco,  tomahawk,  wigwam,  yam.  I 

Italian:  Balustrade,  bandit,  brave,  bust,  canto,  car-  | 
nival,  charlatan,  domino,  ditto,  dilettante,  folio,  gazette,  | 
grotto,  harlequin,  motto,  portico,  stanza,  stiletto,  stucco,  | 
studio,  tenor,  umbrella,  vista,  volcano.  | 

Spanish:  Alligator,  armada,  cargo,  cigar,  desperado,  I 
don.  embargo,  flotilla,  gala,  mosquito,  punctilio,  tor-  I 
nado.  I 

Portuguese:  Caste,  commodore,  fetishism,  palaver,  ? 
porcelain. 

Dutch :  Block,  boom,  cruise,  loiter,  ogle,  ravel,  ruffle, 
scamper,  schooner,  sloop,  stiver,  yacht. 


THE   VOCABULARY    OF   THE   ENGLISH   LAKGUAGE.     137 

German:  Landgrav-e,  landgravine,  loafer,  waltz,  co- 
balt, nickel,  quartz,  feldspar,  zinc* 

The  vocabulary  of  the  English  language  contains  about 
one  hundred  and  four  thousand  words.  This  does  not 
include  many  provincial  forms  and  local  usages  which 
are  currently  employed.  The  English  is  formed  by 
the  gradual  blending  of  a  greater  diversity  of  languages 
and  dialects  than  has  ever  entered  into  the  formation  of 
any  other  speech.  Its  main  constituents  are  the  Ko- 
mance  and  the  Teutonic,  but  it  has  appropriated  and 
assimilated  materials  from  nearly  all  the  languages  of 
the  globe.  This,  while  it  is  the  cause  of  its  comprehen- 
siveness, versatility,  and  far-reaching  adaptation,  affords 
also  the  satisfactory  explication  of  its  complexity, 
its  anomalous  orthoepy,  its  discrepant  orthography, 
its  seeming  transgressions  of  grammatical  prescription. 
They  constitute  part  of  the  exuberant  wealth  of  our 
tongue ;  they  have  resulted  from  the  peculiar  historical 
conditions  under  which  it  was  developed  and  matured. 
The  kindred  languages  of  Europe  were  founded  either 
upon  the  Lingua  Rustica  or  popular  Latin  as  their  basis, 
or  upon  a  Teutonic  or  Scandinavian  groundwork.  But 
it  is  the  especial  glory  of  the  English  tongue  to  have 
blended  the  graces  and  the  energy  of  the  two  most  pow- 
erful languages  of  the  Aryan  family.  It  is  in  English, 
and  in  English  only,  that  all  the  phonetic  elements,  the 
diverse  and  varied  forms  of  the  Aryan  family  have  con- 
verged. After  many  centuries  of  separation,  many 
strange  wanderings  in  foreign  lands,  upon  the  soil  of 
Angleland  the  long  severed  linguistic  branches  are 
peacefully  reunited,  enriched  with  the  wisdom  and  the 

*  Morris's  "  Englisli  Accidence." 


138  HISTOBT  OF  THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

experience  acquired  by  many  painful  vicissitudes,  many 
diverse  fortunes,  since  they  parted  at  the  base  of  tlieir 
mountain  homes  and  started  out  upon  their  marvellous 
career. 

The  greatest  number  of  words  in  the  vocabulary  of 
the  English  language  is  derived  from  Homance  and 
classical  sources.  This  may  at  first  sight  appear  contra- 
dictory and  inconsistent,  as  the  majority  of  persons,  both 
in  speaking  and  in  writing,  employ  a  greater  number  of 
Saxon  than  of  Romance  words ;  but  it  is  this  character 
of  the  objects  denoted  by  these  words,  the  necessity  for 
their  constant  recurrence,  and  not  their  actual  predom- 
inance, that  give  them  a  numerical  superiority.  Again: 
the  conjunctions,  the  indispensable  parts  of  a  sentence, 
"  its  bolts  and  pins,"  are  nearly  all  Saxon,  so  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  compose  the  simplest  sentence 
without  employing  the  .Saxon  element. 

But  the  greater  proportion  of  the  grace  and  refine- 
ment of  our  tongue,  and  consequently  much  of  its  supe- 
rior adaptation  to  all  the  loftier  purposes  of  literature, 
are  attributable  to  its  Latin  and  Romance  constituents. 
If  the  Romance  element  were  eliminated  from  our 
vocabulary,  we  should  have  a  speech  vigourous  and 
energetic,  but  devoid  of  that  delicacy  of  expression  and 
rhythmical  charm  which  so  adorn  the  commonest  utter- 
ances as  well  as  the  grandest  climaxes  of  the  orator,  or 
the  intricate  details  of  the  historian. 

By  its  blending  of  two  languages,  English  is  enriched 
with  a  great  variety  of  synonyms ;  we  may,  in  fact,  be 
said  to  have  two  languages  in  one;  and  this  bilingual 
system  has  formed  a  distinctive  feature  of  our  tongue  in 
all  stages  of  its  history,  from  the  time  that  it  was 
moulded  into  harmonious  form  by  the  delicate  touch  of 


THE  VOCABULAEY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.     139 

Chaucer's  master  hand.  It  is  turned  to  good  account  by 
the  translators  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  much  of  the 
melodious  rhythm  that  characterizes  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer  of  the  Anglican  Church  must  be  attributed 
to  the  judicious  employment  of  Saxon  and  Romance 
synonyms. 


CHAPTEK  XYI. 

THE     ENGLISH    LANGUAGE    FROM    CHAUCER    TO    CAXTON. — 
1.  D.    1400-1474. 

In  the  preceding  chapters  we  indicated  the  manifold 
sources  from  which  the  constituents  of  our  rich  and 
varied  vocabulary  are  derived.  We  must  now  retrace 
our  steps,  and  resume  our  history  at  the  period  at  which 
we  for  a  time  left  it,  the  age  of  Chaucer,  Gower,  and 
WyclifFe.  The  era  which  was  adorned  by  the  genius  of 
these  illustrious  names  did  not  realize  the  bright  prom- 
ises to  which  it  had  pointed  so  auspiciously.  When  the 
political  and  religious  distractions  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury had  subsided,  the  intellectual  vigour  and  energy  that 
characterized  the  age  were  succeeded  by  a  long  period  of 
inactivity  and  depression.  The  original  and  creative 
power  of  the  English  mind  seems  to  have  disappeared, 
and  much  of  the  literature  of  this  century  consists  of 
mere  translations  or  imitations  of  older  models. 

The  names  of  seventy  poets  have  descended  to  us 
from  this  dreary  period,  of  whom  the  most  deserving  of 
commemoration  are  Ocleve,  James  I.  of  Scotland,  and 
Lydgate.  All  of  these  acknowledge  Chaucer  as  their 
master  and  model  in  the  poetic  art. 

The  number  of  prose  writers  is  very  limited,  and  the 
development  of  a  pure  English  prose  style  was  reserved 
until  after  the  introduction  of  printing  should  begin  to 


FKOM   CHAUCER  TO   CAXTON.  141 

exercise  a  decided  influence  upon  the  language.-  The 
prose  writers  of  this  period  are  principally  theological. 
Bishop  Pecoke,  whose  "Eepressor"  appeared  in  1450, 
was  the  purest  of  these.  His  grammar  is  essentially  the 
same  as  that  of  Wycliffe,  with  some  tendency  to  greater 
simplification  of  structure,  and  a  perceptible  advance  in 
style  and  construction.  But  in  the  main,  the  language 
seems  to  have  retrograded,  rather  than  to  have  advanced, 
between  the  death  of  Chaucer  and  the  establishment  of 
printing.  The  tierce  and  sanguinary  Wars  of  tlie  Roses, 
which  extended  over  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  century 
— 1455-1486 — the  convulsions  and  dissensions  w^hich 
disorganized  the  constitution  of  society,  exerted  for  a 
time  a  most  baneful  influence  upon  the  character  of  the 
tongue.  Sympathizing  with  the  vicissitudes  of  those 
who  spoke  it,  and  deprived  of  the  conservative  power  of 
literary  culture,  it  began  to  lose  the  coherence  and  the 
uniformity  it  had  acquired  under  the  skillful  guidance  of 
Chaucer,  and  manifested  a  marked  tendency  to  disinte- 
gration, or  resolution  into  its  dialectic  forms.  But,  not- 
withstanding the  disastrous  results  that  were  temporarily 
produced  by  the  protracted  Wars  of  the  Roses,  their 
ultimate  effects  upon  the  fortunes  and  the  constitution 
of  the  language  were  in  many  regards  salutary  and 
beneficial.  The  marching  to  and  fro,  throughout  all 
portions  of  the  kingdom,  of  vast  bodies  of  men,  the 
commingling  of  classes  and  dialects  hitherto  separate 
and  isolated,  the  general  intercommunication  between 
sections  of  the  island  hitherto  almost  as  unknown  to 
their  respective  inhabitants  as  foreign  lands,  all  tended 
in  the  end  to  impress  upon  the  language,  as  well  as  upon 
the  nation,  a  uniformity  which  strikingly  contrasted 
with  the  diversity  and  confusion   that  had  previously 


142  HISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

prevailed.  In  addition  to  this,  tlie  partial  extirpation  of 
the  Norman  nobility,*  the  elevation  of  the  Saxon  bur- 
ghers in  their  stead,  tended  powerfully  to  efface  the 
ancient  distinction  between  the  I^orman  lord  and  the 
Saxon  vassal,  which  had  its  origin  at  the  Conquest,  to 
obliterate  social  distinctions,  and  thus  efficaciously  to 
promote  uniformity  of  national  character,  as  well  as  uni- 
formity of  speech.  Hence,  we  discover  that  during  this 
era,  nearly  the  last  vestiges  of  our  inflexional  system  dis- 
appeared ;  local  peculiarities,  sectional  diversities,  gradu- 
ally melted  away,  and  a  "  common  dialect "  was  ac- 
knowledged by  all  writers.  The  French  wars,  the 
extension  of  commerce,  the  contact  between  England 
and  foreign  climes,  the  cultivation  of  the  civil  law,  all 
augmented  the  wealth  of  the  vocabulary.  Stimulated 
by  these  and  similar  agencies,  the  vocabulary  increased 
very  rapidly,  so  rapidly,  that  it  is  commented  upon  by 
the  authors  of  that  time.  The  language  had  now  at- 
tained a  condition  which  adapted  it  to  the  mighty 
instrument  now  brought  to  bear  upon  it,  and  destined  to 
wield  a  determining  influence  in  shaping  its  fortunes 
and  directing  its  career.f 

*  During  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  many  of  tlie  Norman  nobility- 
perished  on  the  scaffold,  and  many,  expatriated,  wandered  in  foreign 
lands,  begging  their  bread  in  those  very  regions  from  which  their 
ancestors  had  set  out  to  the  field  of  Hastings. 

f  Changes  in  English  between  Chaucer  and  Caxton.  A  large  class 
of  Anglo  Saxon  compounds  perished,  such  as,  to  out-come,  to  out-go, 
to  in-come,  to  in-go.  Their  places  have  been  supplied  by  Latin 
terms,  as  depart,  enter  ;  to  hef ore-come,  to  anticipate. —  Wood. 


CHAPTEK  XYII. 

THE    INFLTJENCE    OF    PRINTING    UPON    THE    ENGLISH     LAN- 
GUAGE. 

The  Wars  of  the  Roses  left  the  English  language  in  a 
more  uniform  condition ;  thej  greatly  simplified  its 
structure,  and  introduced  many  important  changes  in 
pronunciation,  some  of  which  are  exhibited  in  a  preced- 
ing chapter  (Chapter  XIY).  But  notwithstanding  their 
beneficial  results,  they  were  attended  by  disadvantages 
also.  The  language  was  rendered  more  generally  intel- 
ligible; local  and  dialectic  peculiarities  were  in  great 
measure  effaced  in  the  blending  and  interfusion  of  races, 
and  in  the  thorough  reconstruction  of  society.  But  while 
the  language  in  its  transmuted  state  was  more  widely 
intelligible  than  any  previous  tongue  or  dialect,  it  was 
thoroughly  crude  and  unregulated.  It  had  attained 
uniformity  and  simplicity,  but  it  lacked  harmony  and 
proportion.  During  the  progress  of  the  fierce  and  san- 
guinary struggle,  the  art  of  printing,  invented  in  1440, 
was  introduced  into  England  (1474)  by  Caxton,  who 
established  his  press  in  the  almonry  of  Westminster 
Abbey.  This  at  first  acted  as  a  disturbing  element,  and 
tended  to  augment  the  existing  disorder,  though  in  the 
end  it  essentially  promoted  orthoepical  and  orthograph- 
ical consistency,  uniformity  of  speech,  and  elegance  in 
literary  composition. 


144  HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

Caxton  was  a  man  of  scholarly  attainments,  but  the 
workmen  whom  he  brought  with  him  from  the  Conti- 
nent were  Dutchmen,  who,  were  versed  merely  in  the 
mechanical  part  of  their  art,  and  not  acquainted  with 
the  structure  or  the  orthoepy  of  the  English  tongue. 
Hence  the  immense  advantages  of  printing  were  for 
some  time  imperfectly  appreciated  in  England,  and  it 
failed  to  acquire  that  artistic  excellence  which  it  attained 
in  other  lands  soon  after  its  introduction.*  In  the  Con- 
tinental countries  the  printers  were  among  the  most 
accomplished  scholars  of  the  age,  a  fact  which  accounts 
for  the  perfection  that  the  art  there  attained.  The  for- 
eign handicraftsmen  whom  Caxton  had  brought  to  Eng- 
land resorted  to  numerous  arbitrary  devices,  the  clipping 
or  contracting  of  syllables,  the  extension  of  words ;  in 
their  ignorance  of  our  orthoepical  system,  they  failed  to 
distinguish  words  resembling  each  other  in  sound  but 
differing  in  meaning,  such  as  eminent  and  imminent, 

*  "The  importance  of  the  invention  of  printing,  startling  and 
mysterious  as  it  seemed,  was  very  imperfectly  appreciated  by  con- 
temporary Europe.  It  was  at  first  regarded  only  as  an  economical 
improvement,  and  in  England  it  was  slow  in  producing  effects 
which  were  much  more  speedily  realized  on  the  Continent.  In  Eng- 
land for  a  whole  generation  its  influence  was  scarcely  perceptible  in 
the  increase  of  literary  activity,  and  it  gave  no  sudden  impulse  to 
the  study  of  the  ancient  tongues,  though  the  printing-offices  of  Ger- 
many and  Italy,  and  less  abundantly  of  France,  were  teeming  with 
editions  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics,  as  well  as  of  the  works  of 
Gothic  and  Romance  writers,  both  new  and  old.  The  press  of  Cax- 
ton was  in  active  operation  from  1474  tQ  1490.  In  these  sixteen 
years  it  gave  to  the  world  sixty-three  editions,  among  which  there  is 
not  the  text  of  a  single  work  of  classic  antiquity.  An  edition  of 
Terence,  published  in  1497,  was  the  first  classical  work  published 
in  England.  It  does  not  appear  that  Caxton's  press  issued  a  single 
original  work  by  a  contemporary  English  author,  if  we  except  his 
own  continuations  of  older  works  published  by  him." — Marsh,Wood. 


THE   INFLUE^s^CE   OF   PKIKTIKG.  145 

president  and  precedent,  ingem'oiis  and  ingenious. 
Every  printer  seems  to  have  been  guided  by  his  pho- 
netic appetencies,  and  the  sanction  of  authority  was 
thns  impressed  upon  numerous  anomalies  and  diver- 
sities of  spelling.  In  addition,  Caxton  himself  appears 
to  have  had  no  uniform  standard,  and  it  seems  to  have 
been  his  general  practice  to  reduce  the  orthography  of 
the  authors  that  he  printed  to  the  usage  of  his  own  age, 
or  rather  to  an  arbitrary  standard  of  his  own  devising. 
The  early  productions  of  the  English  press  were,  in 
great  measure,  translations  from  the  French.*  Caxton 
had  spent  many  years  in  France,  and  his  style  is  per- 
vaded by  Gallicisms  both  in  vocabulary  and  in  structure, 
and  the  number  of  French  words  and  idioms  introduced 
by  him  was  very  considerable.  This  was  another  cause 
of  confusion  and  discrepancy. 

The  ultimate  effects  of  printing,  however,  were  bene- 
ficial in  the  extreme,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it 
is  the  most  potent  mechanical  agency  which  has  affected 
the  fortunes  of  our  tongue.  Like  all  inventions,  in  its 
earlier  stages  it  was  liable  to  perversion  and  misapplica- 
tion, but  Avlien  its  real  character  and  importance  were 
distinctly  apprehended,  it  proved  a  most  influential 
agent  in  dispelling  the  prevailing  rudeness,  in  facilitat- 
ing elegance  and  harmony  of  style,  and  in  promoting 
uniformity  and  regularity  of  speech.  The  number  of 
books  and  of  readers  was  multiplied,  the  various  dialects 
became  more  and  more  assimilated  to  the  southern,  or 
the  speech  of  the  capital  and  of  the  southern  counties  of 
the  kingdom.    Authors  were  enabled  to  address  a  larger 

*  Most  worthy  of  commemoration  among  the  works  printed  by 
Caxton,  are  Malory e's  "Morte  D' Arthur,"  printed  in  1485,  and  the 
works  of  Chaucer,  Gower,  and  Lydgate. 

7 


146  HISTORY   OF   THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 

reading  public  than  before;  the  dialect  of  books  began 
gradually  to  extend  its  sway  and  to  supplant  local  forms 
and  provincial  usages,  except  among  the  uneducated 
classes,  to  whom  books  were  not  accessible. 

Printing  also  promoted  many  changes  which  it  did 
not  directly  originate.  The  decay  of  inflections,  and  the 
consequent  adoption  of  a  syntactical  structure,  logical, 
not  formal,  in  character,  in  which  the  relations  of  words 
are  indicated,  not  by  their  terminations,  but  by  the  order 
of  collocation  or  arrangement,  necessitated  essential 
changes  in  the  construction  of  sentences.  "  It  became 
necessary  to  divide  into  short  and  separate  propositions, 
sentences  which  would  otherwise  have  become  involved 
and  obscure,  when  nearly  all  the  cases  had  but  one  form, 
and  when  the  various  persons  of  the  verb  had  become 
almost  entirely  undistinguishable  from  each  other."  The 
complicated,  periodic  style  which  is  intelligible  in  an  in- 
flected tongue,  is  impossible  in  an  analytic  language  like 
the  English,  without  obscuring  the  author's  meaning,  if 
not  rendering  it  wholly  unintelligible.  Independent 
and  subordinate  sentences  in  English  must  necessarily 
have  the  same  form,  and  hence  the  necessity  in  these 
and  in  similar  cases  for  some  artiiicial  contrivance,  some 
mechanical  device,  such  as  pauses,  stops,  etc.,  to  indicate 
those  changes  in  meaning,  which,  in  an  inflected  tongue, 
are  made  sufficiently  clear  by  the  terminations.  The 
-comparative  facility  with  which  printing  was  read  stim- 
ulated the  tendency  to  supply  artificial  expedients,  and 
this,  in  conjunction  with  the  disposition  to  write  as 
briefly  as  possible,  to  make  the  sentence  a  whole,  to  be 
apprehended  by  the  mind  at  once,  and  not  an  assemblage 
of  various  words,  to  be  grasped  separately,  required  an 
additional  use  of  marks  to  aid  the  eye  and  to  separate 


THE   INFLUENCE   OF   FEINTING.  147 

the  parts  of  sentences.  •  Hence,  from  the  new  conditions 
resulting  from  the  invention  of  printing,  arose,  among 
other  beneficial  effects,  the  art  of  punctuation,  which 
has  materially  simplified  our  grammar,  as  well  as 
affected  our  modes  of  thought  and  our  styles  of  compo- 
sition. 


CHAPTEE  XYIII. 

THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  FROM  THE  COMMENCEMENT  OP 
THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  ACCESSION  OF  ELIZA- 
BETH.      1500-1558. 

Between  the  time  of  Caxton  and  the  death  of  Ilenrj 
YIII.,  1547,  our  language  underwent  considerable  im- 
provement, in  consequence  of  the  introduction  of  print- 
ing and  the  more  extended  diffusion  of  knowledge. 
Many  of  its  superfluous  forms  were  cast  off ;  many  of 
its  useless  particles  and  prolix  constructions  were  aban- 
doned. The  literary  productions  of  that  age  manifest 
gradual  progress  and  advancement;  display  greater 
brevity  of  expression,  as  well  as  compactness  of  construc- 
tion, and  even  occasional  elegance.  But  this  improve- 
ment, beneficial  as  its  effects  were,  was  only  partial,  and 
much  remained  to  be  accomplished  before  the  language 
could  be  divested  of  its  ancient  rudeness,  its  redundant 
forms,  and  its  cumbrous  idioms. 

The  most  important  philological  and  literary  monu- 
ment of  the  first  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century  is 
Lord  Berners's  translation  of  the  "  Chronicles  of  Frois- 
sart,"  the  first  volume  of  which  appeared  in  1523,  the 
second  in  1525.  The  translation  is  executed  with  re- 
markable, accuracy,  and  conforms  so  closely  to  the  Eng- 
lish idiom  that  it  has  the  air  of  an  original  work.  The 
orthography  of  the  translation  is  irregular  and  confused, 


FROM  1500  TO  1558.  149 

a  defect  which  may  be  attributed  to  the  foreign  printers, 
who  were  ignorant  of' the  orthoepy  and  orthography  of 
the  English  tongue. 

Another  literary  production  of  the  first  half  of  this 
centuiy,  w^hich  is  valuable  in  a  philological  as  well  as  in 
an  historical  point  of  view,  is  the  *'Life  of  Richard  III.," 
by  Sir  Thomas  More,  printed  in  15431  TEe'style  of  the 
work  displays  a  more  advanced  phase  of  the  language 
than  Lord  Berners's  translation,  or  than  any  other  secular 
prose  of  this  period,  and  it  is  probably  the  first  speci- 
men of  good  English  prose,  "  pure  and  conspicuous,  well 
chosen,  without  vulgarisms  or  pedantry." 

The  most  important  production  of  this  period,  and 
the  one  which  exerted  a  more  decided  influence  upon 
English  philology  than  any  other  native  work  between 
the  ages  of  Chaucer  and  of  Shakspere,  is  Tynd ale's  trans- 
lation of  the  New^  Testament,  first  published  in  1526. 
The  English  of  Tyndale  contrasts  strangely  w^ith  that  of 
his  contemporaries.  While  their  style  is  characterized 
by  awkward  periphrases,  and  is  modelled  upon  the  in- 
volved and  complicated  periods  of  the  Latin,  that  of 
Tyndale  is  thoroughly  English  in  spirit  and  in  construc- 
tion, and  represents  a  more  advanced  stage  of  the  lan- 
guage than  the  secular  prose  of  that  age. 

The  same  purity,  or  at  least  the  same  freedom  from 
awkward  and  incongruous  Latinisms,  may  be  discovered 
in  the  writings  of  Latimer  and  some  of  the  other  reform- 
ers,  though  their  style  is  occasionally  rude  and  uncouth 
in  the  extreme. 

It  is  in  the  admirable  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England 
that  the  impress  of  Cranmer's  mind  and  heart  is  most 
perceptible,  but  the  parity  of  his  diction  entitles  him 
to  exalted  position  among  the  writers  of  the  Eeforma- 


/ 


150  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

tion,  and  to  honourable  commemoration  in  a  liistory  of 
the  English  tongue. 

The  sermons  of  Lever  are  pervaded  by  the  fiery 
vigour  of  Luther,  and  they  have  been  turned  to  good 
account  by  a  brilliant  historian  of  our  own  age. 

Upon  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks  in 
1453,  the  light  of  classical  learning  found  its  way  to 
Italy,  whence  it  was  disseminated  throughout  the  differ- 
ent countries  of  Europe.  Upon  its  introduction  into 
England,  it  was  at  first  cultivated  in  accordance  with 
correct  and  rational  methods,  and  was  restricted  to  the 
legitimate  intention  of  transferring  to  the  English 
tongue  the  elegance  and  the  spirit,  and  not  the  forms,  of 
the  classic  writers.  Some  of  the  most  distinguished 
scholars  were  purists  in  sentiment,  and  Sir  John  Cheke, 
the  illustrious  Greek  professor  at  Cambridge,  formed  a 
plan  for  the  elimination  from  the  vocabulary  of  all 
words  not  of  Saxon  origin.  But  these  endeavours  for 
the  reformation  of  the  language  produced  no  perceptible 
results,  and/the  first  decided  effects  of  the  study  of 
/classical  learning  in  England  were  similar  to  those  that 
I  immediately  followed  the  introduction  of  printing — 
Vadditional  confusion,  discordance,  and  diversity.  The 
cultivation  of  the  ancient  literature  was  speedily  carried 
beyond  its  proper  sphere.  The  votaries  of  classic  learn- 
ing, not  content  with  transferring  the  graces  of  antiquity 
to  the  native  tongue,  aspired  also  to  engraft  its  forms 
and  idioms  upon  its  structure.  The  result  was  awk- 
wardness and  incongruity  unsurpassed.  The  language 
was  oppressed  with  perverted  imitations  of  classic  graces, 
which  sat  strangely  upon  it;  the  free  and  natural  English 
construction,  simplified  by  the  rejection  of  nearly  all 
grammatical  inflections,  was  distorted    and    burdened 


PEOM  1500  TO  1558.  151 

with  the  complicated  syntax  of  the  ancients ;  numerous 
terms,  based  upon  Latin  roots,  ostentatious  and  pedantic 
in  form  as  well  as  in  meaning,  w^ere  fabricated;  the 
language  appeared  stiff,  ungainly,  and  ill  at  ease,  in  its 
novel  and  grotesque  habiliments.  . 

These  disastrous  consequences  of  the  abuses  of  clas- 
sical learning  were  stimulated  by  the  immediate  literary 
effects  of  the  Keformation,  which  followed  in  the  train 
of  printing,  and  the  revival  of  ancient  literature.  It  is 
a  prevalent,  though  a  mistaken,  impression,  that  the 
Reformation  was  beneficial  to  literature  and  sound  learn- 
ing in  the  periods  immediately  succeeding."^  On  the 
contrary,  it  co-operated  with  the  agencies  already  at  work 
in  marring  the  character  and  the  constitution  of  the  lan- 
guage. It  provoked  theological  controversy,  which  was 
often  conducted  with  acrimonious  virulence ;  it  narrowed 
the  sphere  of  intellectual  pursuits,  and  intensified  the 
feelings  of  the  combatants ;  it  concentrated  the  abilities 
of  scholars  upon  the  all-absorbing  themes  of  polemical 
and  religious  discussion.  In  addition  to  .these  causes, 
the  standard  of  theological  education  in  England  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Reformation  was  extremely  low,  and 
there  were  consequently  few  scholars  of  sufficient  attain- 
ments to  conduct  a  controversy  involving  such  momen- 
tous issues.  Hence,  a  recourse  to  Continental  scholars 
was  necessary,  and  the  want  of  native  learning  and  con- 
troversial skill  were  supplied  in  great  measure  from  for- 
eign sources.  These,  writing  in  Latin,  introduced  a 
specially  Latinized  phraseology,  which  naturally  tended 
to  augment  the  existing  confusion.     It  was  thus  unpro- 


*  Southern  Review,  Oct.,  1872.    "  Craik's  Englisli  Language  and 
Literature,"  Vol.  I. 


152  HISTORY  OF   THE   ENGLISH  LAKGUAGE. 

pitious  to  elegant  literature ;  it  imported  numbers  of 
foreign  terms  and  phrases,  ancient  and  modern,  and 
"rendered  zeal  and  confidence  much  more  effectual  aids 
to  authorship  than  art  or  the  graces  of  art."  * 

But  the  causes  of  confusion  and  disorganization  are 
not  yet  fully  specified.  The  Reformation  in  England 
induced  a  partial  acquaintance  with  the  treatises  and  the 
language  of  the  German  reformers ;  it  led  to  numerous 
translations  from  the  French  and  Italian,  as  well  as 
from  the  contemporaneous  Latin.  The  wars  between 
Charles  Y.  and  Francis  I.,  of  France,  the  relations  which 
England  sustained  to  those  wars,  invited  the  cultivation 
of  foreign  languages  and  literatures,  and  especially  of  the 
brilliant  literature  which  had  been  developed  under  the 
auspicious  skies  of  Italy.f  Then  followed  the  fashiona- 
ble affectation  of  Italian  idioms  and  phrases,  of  Italian 
manners  and  graces,  which  prevailed  so  extensively 
during  the  earlier  years  of  Elizabeth's  reign  a-nd  during 
the  reign  of  her  father.  Italian  novels  and  romances 
were  the  favourite  diversion  of  the  fashionable  and  re- 
fined ;  to  understand  Italian  was  an  indispensable  accom- 
plishment among  courtiers  and  nobles.  En^and  became 
"Italianated"  in  speech  and  in  morals.  The  extent  to 
which  these  foreign  influences  were  carried  in  the  earlier 
part  of  Elizabeth's  reign  may  be  inferred  from  Eoger 
Ascham's  energetic  and  repeated  protests,  from  many 
allusions  in  Lily's  "  Euj^liues^"^  and  from  frequent  refer- 
ences in  the  writings  of  contemporary  or  nearly  con- 
temporary authors.  The  product  that  was  evolved  by 
the  combined  action  of  so  jnany  diverse  and  powerful 

*  Southern  Beview,  Oct.,  1873.    "Craik's  English  Language  and 
Literature,"  Vol.  I. 
f  Southern  Review,  Oct.,  1873. 


FROM  1500  TO  1558.  153 

agencies  upon   a  language  in  a  state  of  disintegration 
must  have  been  a  "strange  medley"  indeed. 

The  "  strange  medley,"  too,  was  enriched  by  vast 
accessions  of  materials,  gathered  from  under  the  four- 
corners  of  the  heavens ;  the  chivalric  love  of  adventure, 
the  development  of  commercial  enterprise,  the  extension 
of  geographical  knowledge,  the  introduction  of  names 
for  the  articles,  products,  and  commodities  imported 
from  many  foreign  climes,  all  tended  to  augment  the 
vocabulary  by  the  infusion  of  an  enormous  wealth  of 
words.  To  cite  one  example :  it  is  said  "  that  the 
vocabulary  of  Philemon  Holland's  translation  of  Pliny 
has  never  been  precisely  ascertained."  Such  was  the 
general  condition  of  the  English  tongue  at  the  time  that 
Elizabeth  ascended  the  throne.  Its  vocabulary  was  rich, 
copious,  and  varied,  but  heterogeneous  and  unascertained; 
the  grammar  was  rude  and  unregulated,  the  syntactical 
order  awkward,  the  pronunciation  unsettled,  its  metrical 
principles  and  combinations  undetermined.  The  ver- 
nacular tongue  was  held  in  low  repute ;  its  future  great- 
ness was  unforeseen,  and  it  was  but  little  resorted  to  for 
literary  purposes.  The  language,  notwithstanding  its 
amazing  verbal  wealth,  was  thoroughly  disorganized, 
and  imperatively  demanded  an  entire  reformation  and 
reconstruction.  It  is  true  that  during  the  latter  years  o£^.^ 
Henry  YIII.,  Surrey  and  Wyatt  introduced  hlank  verse 
into  English  poetry,  a  form  of  versification  derived  from 
Italian  models.*      This  new  unrhymed  verse  ripened 

*  Perhaps  from  Cardinal  Hippolito's  translation  of  Virgil's  ^neid, 
wliicli  was  probably  the  earliest  specimen  of  blank  verse  in  the 
Italian  language.  It  is  supposed,  however,  by  Prof.  Henry  Morley, 
that  the  translation  was  made  by  the  poet  Francesco  Maria  Molza, 
"  who  allowed  the  cardinal  to  take  the  credit  of  it." 


154  HISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

into  perfection  at  a  subsequent  era,  but  it  exerted  at  the 
first  little  influence  upon  the  tongue ;  in  fact,  the  blank 
verse  of  Surrey  and  Wyatt  is  scarcely  more  than  prose. 

During  this  period,  also,  was  introduced  by  Sir  Thom- 
as Wyatt,  the  sonnet,  invented  in  Italy  by  Yinea,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.  of  England,  and  immortalized  by 
the  genius  of  Petrarch.  The  English  language  is  pecu- 
liarly unfavourable  to  the  development  of  the  special 
beauties  of  this  graceful  and  difficult  form  of  verse 
composition,  but  it  has  been  cultivated  with  success 
by  some  of  the  greatest  masters  of  English  poetry, 
among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Shakspere,  Milton,  and 
"Wordsworth.  The  popular  element  in  poetry,  repre- 
sented by  the  vigourous  rhymes  of  Skelton,  and  the 
courtly  element,  represented  by  the  Italian  graces  of 
Surrey  and  Wyatt,  reappear  in  the  luxuriant  richness  of 
the  Shaksperian  drama. 

Having  traced  the  action  of  the  multiform  influences 
by  which  English  was  reduced  to  its  lowly  estate  at  the 
commencement  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  we  must  now  con- 
sider that  series  of  processes  by  which,  in  a  compara- 
tively short  period,  the  language  underwent  a  perfect 
transmutation,  and  became  the  appropriate  vehicle  of 
Spenser's  fairy  song  and  of  the  marvellous  revelations 
of  Shakspere. 


CHAPTEK  XIX. 

THE    FORMATION   OF   ELIZABETHAN    ENGLISH. 

Perhaps  no  language  ever  experienced  more  rapid 
improvement,  and  underwent  a  more  thorough  recon- 
struction, than  English,  during  the  first  thirty  years  of 
Elizabeth's  reign.  J^obles,  statesmen,  knights,  scholars, 
even  royalty,  engaged  assiduously  in  the  labour  of  re- 
forming the  native  tongue.  Every  phase  of  literary 
effort  was  diligently  explored ;  the  laws  of  style  were 
carefully  defined ;  canons  of  versification  were  prescribed ; 
the  metrical  capacities  of  the  language  were  expanded ; 
its  rhyming  words  were  collected  for  the  convenience 
of  versifiers,  and  in  every  department  of  intellectual 
exertion  the  utmost  zeal  and  energy  were  displayed  for 
the  re-formation  of  the  vernacular  tongue.  Sir  Philip 
Sidney,  Puttenham,  Webbe,  Meres,  Mulcaster,  Levin, 
Sackville,  Marlowe,  contributed  efficaciously  to  the 
improvement  of  the  language,  and  tended  essentially  to 
stimulate  the  genius  and  the  enterprise  of  native  authors. 

Roger  Ascham  and  Dr.  Thomas  Wilson  are  worthy 
of  especial  commemoration  as  the  precursors  of  this 
school  of  linguistic  reformers,  and  the  former  is  entitled 
to  a  lofty  position  in  the  history  of  our  tongue,  as  one 
of  the  founders  of  a  cultivated  English  prose  style.  He 
was  among  the  first  to  reject  the  use  of  foreign  words 


156  HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

and  idioms,  which  had  become  so  prevalent  in  the  reign 
of  "Henry  YIII.,  so  tliat  the  authors  of  that  day,  ''  using 
strange  words,  as  Latin,  Italian,  and  French,  do  make 
all  things  dark  and  hard."  He  'laboured  with  praise- 
worthy diligence  to  inculcate  the  formation  of  a  pure 
English  prose  style,  and  to  rescue  the  language  from 
the  neglect  and  indifference  with  which  it  was  regarded 
by  his  contemporaries.  His  zealous  advocacy  of  the 
claims  of  the  native  tongue,  and  especially  of  its  supe- 
rior adaptation  to  the  purposes  of  prose  composition, 
produced  a  marked  improvement  in  the  style  of  the 
period.  So  unfashionable  had  the  literary  application  of 
English  become,  that  Ascham  prefaces  his  "  Toxophilus  " 
(1544:)  with  an  apology  for  employing  it,  "doubting 
not  that  he  should  be  blamed  for  it." 

Dr.  Thomas  Wilson,  one  of  the  oldest  English  philol- 
ogists, published,  in  1551,  "  The  Kule  of  Keason,  con- 
taining the  Art  of  Logic,  set  forth  in  English,"  and  in 
1553,  "  The  Art  of  Rhetoric,  for  all- such  as  are  studious 
of  eloquence,  set  forth  in  English."  The  treatise  of  Wil- 
son powerfully  aided  the  cause  which  Ascham  had  been 
advocating,  the  cultivation  of  English  prose  by  scholars. 
It  evinces  excellent  discrimination,  and  it  tended  to  clear 
the  language  of  foreign  plirases  and  pedantic  affectations. 

In  1565  "Appeared  the.  first  English  tragedy  (Gorboduc, 
or  Ferrex  and  Porrex),  in  which  th^  recently  introduced 
blank  verse  of  Surrey  and  Wyatt  was  employed.  It 
was  composed  by  Korton  and  Sackville,  the  latter  of 
whom,  in  the  Induction  to  his  "Mirror  for  Magistrates," 
had  proved  himself  the  appropriate  herald  of  Spenser's 
coming  greatness.* 

*  It  was  first  acted  in  1561-1562,  though  not  published  until  1565. 


THE   FORMATIOJq"   OF   ELIZABETHAN   EJ^GLISH.         157 

Christoplier  IVTarldwe,  our  greatest  dramatic  poet 
before  the  time  of  Shakspere,  contributed  successfully 
to  the  establishing  of  blank  verse  as  the  recognized  form 
of  dramatic  composition.  Its  progress,  however,  was 
very  gradual,  as  is  evident  from  the  mixture  in  various 
proportions  of  rhyme,  prose,  and  blank  verse  in  the 
plays  of  Shakspere. 

In  1570  appeared  the  "Khyming  Dictionary"  of  Peter 
Levin,  a  work  designed  to  facilitate  the  labours  of  versi- 
fiers. The  preface  contains  some  valuable  observations 
upon  the  language  of  his  time. 

In  1575  Greorge  Gascoigne  published  "  Certain  'Notes 
of  Instruction  concerning  the  making  of  Yerse  or  Kime 
in  English."  "  The  Steel  Glass,"  published  in  1576  by 
the  same  author,  is  the  first  specimen  in  our  language  of 
an  extended  poem  not  dramatic,  written  in  blank  verse. 

In  1582  Richard  Mulcaster  wrote  his  "Elementary, 
which  entreateth  chiefly  of  the  right  writing  of  the 
English  tongue."  It  is  inferior  to  the  "  Schoolmaster" 
of  Ascham,  bat  it  contributed  materially  to  the  progress 
of  English  philology,  as  it  embodies  many  acute  and 
discriminating  observations  upon  the  language. 

In  1586  was  published  a  "  Discourse  of  English  Poet- 
ry, together  with  the  author's  judgment  concerning  the 
Reformation  of  our  English  verse,"  by  William  Webbe. 
It  is  valuable  on  account  of  its  delineations  of  English 
poets  from  Chaucer  to  his  own  day.  The  discourse  was 
written  in  advocacy  of  the  new  system  of  hexameter 
verse,  which  had  been  introduced  by  Harvey  in  spite  of 
violent  opposition. 

The  writings  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney  w^ere  not  given  to 
the  world  until  after  his  death  (1586).  His  "Arcadia" 
was  published  in  1590,  his  "Sonnets"  in  1591,  and  his 


158  HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LA^N^GUAGE. 

''Apologie  for  Poetrie"  and  his  "Defence  of  Poesy"  in 
1595.  The  "Arcadia"  was  written  in  1580-1581;  the 
"Defence"  and  the  "Apologie"  in  1581.  Sidney's 
prose  style  is  the  most  graceful  that  the  language,  up  to 
that  time,  had  produced,  though  it  displays  an  excess  of 
art  rather  than  an  unconstrained  freedom,  and  is  more 
euphuistic  than-  that  of  Lyly.  "  Yet,  notwithstanding 
all  the  conceits  into  which  it  frequently  runs,  and  also 
some  want  of  animation  and  variety,  Sidney's  is  a  won- 
derful style,  always  flexible,  harmonious,  and  luminous, 
and  on  fit  occasions  rising  to  great  stateliness  and  splen- 
dour." Sir  Philip  advocates  the  capacities  of  the  English 
language  for  the  highest  purposes  of  literary  composi- 
tion, and  it  is  a  remarkable  evidence  of  his  linguistic 
discrimination  that  he  was  among  the  first  of  modern 
scholars  to  perceive  the  superiority  of  an  uninflected 
grammatical  structure  and  a  logical  syntax,  over  an  in- 
flected structure,  and  a  syntax  based  upon  the  formal 
relations  of  words. 

In  1586  appeared  the  first  English  Grammar,  written 
by  William  Bullokar. 

In  1589  John  Rider  published  the  first  English  Dic- 
tionary of  Latin  and  English,  and  English  and  Latin. 

By  far  the  most  valuable  treatise  in  the  province  of 
criticism  which  appeared  during  the  period  of  recon- 
struction was  Puttenham's  "Art  of  English  Poesy," 
1589.  It  is  replete  with  instructive  information  respect- 
ing the  language  of  the  time,  and  lays  down  elaborate 
canons  for  the  guidance  of  poets. 

In  1598  Meres  published  his  "  Comparative  Discourse 
of  our  English  poets,  with  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian 
poets,"  entitled  "  Palladis  Tamia,  or  Wit's  Treasury." 

Under  the  influence  of  these  critical  writers,  the  ver- 


THE   FOEMATIOi^   OF   ELIZABETHAl^'   EiiTGLISH.        159 

nacular  tongue  rapidly  advanced,  approved  standards  of 
composition  and  models  of  style  now  existed,  the  lan- 
guage cast  off  much  of  its  former  rudeness,  while  it  re- 
tained much  of  its  former  vigour  and  flexibility.  Its 
roughness  was  tempered  by  artistic  graces,  but  its  bound- 
ing spirit  w^as  not  repressed  by  rigid  prescription,  nor  its 
rhythmical  flow  checked  by  the  enervating  procedures 
of  a  purely  artiflcial  era. 

But  there  were  other  influences,  not  yet  enumerated, 
which  tended  to  enrich  the  marvellous  afliuence  of  Eliz- 
abethan speech,  and  to  complete  the  process  of  redinte- 
gration in  the  course  of  a  single  generation.  We  must 
flrst  remember  what  has  often  been  said  of  the  learning 
and  literary  pretensions  of  the  queen,  and  of  the  nobles 
and  gentrj'  of  her  court.  Elizabeth  herself  was  a  scholar 
of  decided  merit,  and  her  example  was  imitated  by  all 
who  aspired  to  elegance  of  manner  or  admission  into  the 
courtly  society  of  the  age.  The  queen  was  acquainted 
.with  Greek,  translated  two  of  the  orations  of  Isocrates, 
a  play  of  Euripides,  the  "Hiero"  of  Zenophon,  Sallust's 
j"  JugurthineWar,"  Horace's  "Art  of  Poetry,"  Boethius' 
'"  Consolations  of  Philosophy,"  a  long  chorus  from  Sen- 
eca, one  of  Cicero's  Epistles,  and  one  of  Seneca's. 
She  also  wrote  many  Latin,  letters,  and  original  Eng- 
lish works  in  prose  and  poetry,  and  she  spoke  with 
fluency  the  Latin,  French,  Italian,  and  Spanish  lan- 
guages. "An  impulse  was  thus  communicated,  a  fashion 
was  thus  set,  and  dignity  was  conferred  upon  literature 
and  scholarly  pursuits.  Admiration  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin,  and  the  desire  to  rival  or  reproduce  the  triumphs 
of  the  French,  and  especially  of  the  Italian,  inspired 
frequent  imitations.  These  dispositions  cherished  an 
eager  diligence  of  translation,  not  simply  or  mainly  to 


160  HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

transfer  the  thought  and  substance  of  ancient  and  mod- 
ern masterpieces  to  home  use,  but  for  the  sake  of  domes- 
ticating acknowledged  beauties,  and  of  training  the 
luxuriant  redundance  of  the  vernacular  to  the  disciplined 
and  decorous  shape  of  artistic  composition.  Roger 
Ascham,  in  his  ^  Schoolmaster,'  commenced  in  1563,  and 
published  in  1570,  strenuously  commends  the  practice  of 
translation  for  the  acquisition  of  style,  and  for  the  cor- 
rection of  errors  in  the  still  unres^ulated  tono^ue."  Clas- 
sical  learning  had  become  a  fashionable  mania,  Latin- 
isms  were  prevalent  in  the  conversational  dialect,  the 
fashion  of  interlarding  sentences  with  Latin  phrases 
came  generally  into  vogue,  producing  a  sort  of  macaronic 
speech,  which  is  ridiculed  by  Sidney  with  exquisite 
humour  in  the  character  of  Rombus,  and  by  Shakspere 
in  the  character  of  Holofernes. 

By  the  year  1625,  every  classic  author  had  been  ren- 
dered intelligible  through  the  medium  of  translations. 
The  great  diversity  of  translations,  the  wide  range  of 
fopics  which  they  comprehended,  called  into  requisition 
all  the  varied  powers  of  the  tongue.  It  was  enriched 
by  copious  accessions  of  Latin  and  Greek  words,  and  by 
the  resuscitation  of  many  native  vocables  which  had  be- 
come obsolete  in  literary  composition,  or  were  restricted 
to  dialectic  usage.  In  fact,  the  most  remarkable  feature 
of  these  translations  is  not  so  much  their  specially  Latin- 
ized dialect,  as  the  great  number  of  native  words  that 
they  revived.  The  translation  of  Erasmus's  "Para- 
phrase of  the  'New  Testament,"  executed  by  JSTicholas 
Udall,  author  of  the  first  English  comedy,  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  Queen  Catherine  Parr,  is  clear  and  vigourous  in 
style,  abounding  in  English  idioms,  expressive  colloquial 
phrases,  and  terse  Saxon  terms.      Philemon  Holland, 


THE   PORMATIO]!^^   OF   ELIZABETHAIT   ENGLISH.         161 

Master  of  the  Coventry  Grammar  School,  was  an  inde- 
fatigable translator  of  classic  authors,  and  his  versions, 
which  iill  five  or  six  dense  folios,  contain  a  rich  mine  of 
native  linguistic  wealth.  Not  only  this  new  literature, 
but  new  inventions  and  discoveries,  new  ideas  and  aspi- 
rations, all  demanded  new  verbal  forms  for  their  ade- 
quate expression.  These  requisitions  upon  the  energies 
of  the  speech  were  fully  complied  with,  and  in  a  short 
time  the  vocabulary  of  reflection  became  as  rich  as  that 
of  imagination. 

Another  way  in  which  the  speech  was  simplified  was 
by  the  amount  of  controversy  elicited  by  the  Reforma- 
tion— the  extensive  literature  of  attack  and  reply,  of 
political  dissertations  and  pamphlets.  The  issues  in- 
volved in  these  discussions  were  of  a  popular  character, 
and  contributed  to  simplify  tlie  structure  of  the  language, 
and  to  assign  additional  prominence  to  the  Saxon  ele- 
ment in  its  vocabulary. 

Thus,  every  phase  of  the  language  was  re-fashioned 
and  re-organized  in  the  space  of  about  thirty  years. 
Under  the  judicious  precepts  of  Ascham  and  Wilson, 
prose,  a  species  of  literature  always  subsequent  in  the 
order  of  development  to  poetry,*  gradually  assumed  a 

*  "  There  is  a  general  law  according  to  wliicli,  in  all  nations,  met- 
rical literature  has  preceded  prose.  Almost  from  the  first  hour  that 
Englishmen  expressed  their  feelings  in  song,  or  sought  play  for 
their  imagination  in  tales,  they  chose  their  vernacular  for  that  pur- 
pose ;  whereas,  in  those  departments  of  literary  exercise  which  the 
world  had  long  recognized  as  the  proper  dominion  of  prose — the 
great  business  of  record  or  of  history  in  all  its  varieties,  the  noble 
work  of  speculation  or  philosophical  thought  on  all  subjects  inter- 
esting to  humanity,  and  to  some  extent,  also,  the  work  of  social  con- 
troversy and  moral  exhortation — Latin  had  all  along  been  preferred 
to  Epglish.    An  English  prose  was  indeed  nobly  disentangling  itself. 


162  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

loftier  and  a  purer  tone.  But  much  of  the  prose  compo- 
sition of  the  Elizabethan  age  is  coloured  by  a  poetic 
glow,  and  it  was  not  until  a  much  later  period  that  prose 
acquired  its  modern  form  and  character.  The  canons  of 
poetry  had  been  diligently  explored,  the  metrical  capaci- 
ties of  the  tongue  had  been  tested,  the  forms  of  versifi- 
cation had  been  thoroughly  discussed,  blank  verse  was 
slowly  winning  its  way  to  favour,  the  necessities  of 
translation  had  recovered  much  of  the  buried  wealth  of 
the  language,  and  had  tempered  its  ancient  rudeness  by 
naturalizing  the  decorous  graces  of  Greek  and  Roman 
art.  The  great  era  of  the  English  tongue  was  about  to 
dawn. 

Any  account  of  Elizabethan  English  would  be  neces- 
^sarily  imperfect  without  an  explanation  of  one  of  its 
characteristic  features — Euphuism.  It  is  an  important 
phenomenon  in  the  history  of  the  language,  though  its 


As  was  natural,  it  had  disentangled  itself  in  tlie  form  and  for  the 
purposes  of  pulpit  eloquen(?e.  Allowing  for  the  precedents  of  a 
Wycliffe,  a  Chaucer,  in  some  of  his  works,  a  Sir  Thomas  More,  and 
the  like,  the  first  English  prose  style  was  that  of  the  pulpit,  after 
the  lie  formation.  Then,  in  the  Elizabethan  age,  towering  above  a 
host  of  chroniclers,  pamphleteers,  and  polemical  theologians,  there 
had  appeared  a  Sidney,  a  Hooker,  a  Raleigh,  and  a  Bacon.  After 
such  men  had  appeared,  and  there  had  been  exhibited  in  their  writ- 
ings the  union  of  wealth  and  depth  of  matter  with  beauty  and  even 
gorgeousness  of  form,  there  could  no  longer  be  a  definition  of  litera- 
ture in  which  English  prose  should  not  be  coordinate  with  English 
poetry.  And  yet,  so  much  had  still  to  be  done  before  genius  of  all 
kinds  could  sufficiently  master  the  new  element,  and  make  it  plastic 
for  all  purposes  (some  of  those  included  which  poetry  had  hitherto 
believed  to  be  her  own),  that  in  the  schemes  of  our  ablest  literary 
historians,  it  is  common  to  count  but  one  period  of  English  prose 
prior  to  the  age  of  Dryden  and  the  Restoration." — Masson's  Life  of 
Milton,  Vol.  I. 


THE   FORMATION"   OF   ELIZABETHAN   ENGLISH.         163 

character  and  influence  have  been  so  often  misconceived 
and  misrepresented.    "Many  have  derived  their  impres- 
sions of  euphuism  from  Sir  Walter  Scott's  delineation  of 
Sir  Piercie  Shafton  in  the  "  Monastery,"  which  is  not 
merely  an  exaggeration,  but  a  ridiculous  and  unpardona- 
ble travesty.     Euphuism  was  introduced  into  England/" 
from  Italy  during  the  earlier  years  of  Elizabeth's  reign,! 
and  brought  to  perfection  in  the  hands  of  John  Lyly,  a  I 
dramatic  poet  of  this  era,  in  his  two  productions,  "  Eu- 
phues,  the  Anatomic  of  Wit,"  and  "  Euphues  and  his  \ 
England."      Eyly  was  merely  a  representative  of  the 
prevalent  literary  fashion,  and  he  imparted  to  euphuism, 
when  at  its  climax,  a  typical  and  polished  form.     Some 
of  its  distinctive  peculiarities,  together  with  its  name, 
are  to  be  traced  to  the  influence  of  the  Platonic  philoso- 
phy in  England  during  the  reign  of  Henry  YIIL,  an  in- 
fluence which  came  also  from  Italy.     The  skill  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  in  dexterous  phrases,  and  her  accomplishments 
as  a  linguist,  favoured  the  growth  of  euphuism  at  her 
court.     The  frivolous  character  of  James  I.  lowered  the 
dignity,  while  it  extended  the  sphere  of  literary  affecta- 
tion.    The  fervour  of  political  and  religious  enthusiasm 
imparted  to  the  conceited   and  pedantic  style  a  glow  of 
life  and  passion,  in  the  days  of  Charles  I.  and  the  Com-  . 
monwealth.    Its  influence  upon  the  language  of  England/ 
continued  during  the  rule  of  Cromwell,  and  much  of  the 
language  of  the  Puritans  was  euphuism,  inflamed  with 
religious  zeal,  and  acquiring   a  sombre  hue  from  the 
gloomy  fanaticism  of  the  age.     The  success  of  Lyly's 
work  was  immense ;  he  introduced  a  new  English,  and 
elegant  and  courtly  dames,  nobles,  cavaliers,  and  schol- 
ars were  his  followers.     The  essential  characteristics  o: 
euphuism  were  verbal   antithesis,  strange  contrasts, 


164  HISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

straining  after  effect,  remote  allusions,  and  incongruous 
combinations.  In  the  ordinary  conversation  of  society, 
it  doubtless  became  an  absurd  jargon,  but  in  tlie  hands 
of  Lyly,  despite  its  characteristic  faults,  it  attained  an 
elegance  and  simplicity  of  form  unknown  in  the  prose 
literature  of  that  era,  and  which  strikingly  foreshadow 
the  graceful  ease  of  the  Addisonian  age.  In  its  purer 
types,  as  exhibited  by  Lyly,  it  was  an  essential  simplifi- 
cation both  of  structure  and  vocabulary,  an  endeavour 
to  inculcate  the  graces  of  style  by  practical  illustration,  a 
sort  of  "  art  teaching  by  example."  Few  of  the  writers 
of  the  Elizabethan  period  escape  the  fascination  of  the 
euphuistic  style.  Sidney,  Spenser,  and  Shakspere  all 
yield  in  a  measure  to  its  influence,  and  the  style  of  Sid- 
ney is  more  euphuistic  than  that  of  Lyly.  !N"o  sphere 
of  literary  effort  was  able  to  escape  the  contagion.  It 
pervaded,  in  its  extravagant  forms,  the  discourses  of 
Andrews,  the  poetry  of  Donne,  and,  at  a  later  day,  the 
style  of  Fuller.  Our  dramatic  poetry,  the  most  native 
portion  of  our  literature,  was  least  affected  by  its  influ- 
ence. Its  impress  is  visible  until  the  era  of  the  Kestora- 
tion,  when  it  was  supplanted  by  the  French  models 
then  coming  into  repute. 

Euphuism  is  not,  however,  a  feature  peculiar  to  the 
Elizabethan  age,  nor  to  any  particular  era  of  linguistic 
history;  it  is  constantly  reproducing  itself  in  diverse 
forms  and  with  varying  degrees  of  virulence.  The  anti- 
thetical brilliance  of  Macaulay  is  merely  "  the  euphuism 
of  the  elder  day,"  and  in  the  discourses  of  the  modern 
-sensational  school  of  divines,  we  have  a  strange  resusci- 
tation of  the  incongruities  and  fantasies  of  euphuism, 
without  the  redeeming  excellencies  which  it  attained 
under  the  culture  of  the  graceful  Lyly  and  his  associates. 


CHAPTEK  XX. 

ELIZABETHAN    ENGLISH.* 

Fkom  the  contents  of  the  preceding  chaptei*,  the  stu- 
dent is  enabled  to  understand  the  combination  of  influ- 
ences by  whose  action  the  English  tongue  underwent,  in 
a  comparatively  short  period,  an  entire  re-formation,  and 
acquired  that  richness,  flexibility,  and  vigour  which  pre- 
eminently characterize  the  English  of  the  Elizabethan 
era. 

Upon  a  superficial  examination  of  Elizabethan  Eng- 
lish, it  appears  to  present  this  striking  contrast  to  the 
English  of  modern  times — that  in  the  former  any  irreg- 
ularities whatever,  either  in  the  formation  of  words  or 
the  combination  of  them  into  sentences,  are  allowable. 
In  the  first  place,  almost  any  part  of  speech  can  be  sub- 
stituted for  any  other  part  of  speech.  An  adverb  can 
be  used  as  a  verb,  "  They  askance  their  eyes ; "  as  a 
noun,  "The  hachward  and  abysm  of  time;"  as  an  ad- 
jective, "  A  seldom  pleasure."  Any  noun,  adjective,  or 
intransitive  verb  can  be  used  as  a  transitive  verb.  You 
can  "happy  your  friend,"  "malice  your  enemy,"  or 
"  fall "  an  axe  upon  his  neck.  An  adjective  can  be  used 
as  an  adverb  ;  you  can  speak  and  act  "  easy,"  "  free  ; "  or 
as   a   noun,   and   you   can   talk   of   "fair,"    instead   of 

*  This  chapter  is  principally  condensed  from  Abbott's  "  Grammar 
of  Shakspere." 


166  HISTORY  OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

"  beauty,"  and  a  "  pale,"  instead  of  a  "  paleness."  Even 
the  pronouns  are  subject  to  these  metamorphoses.  A 
"he"  is  used  for  a  man,  and  a  lady  is  described  by  a 
gentleman  as  "  the  fairest  she  he  has  yet  beheld."  *  In 
the  second  place,  we  encounter  every  variety  of  apparent 
grammatical  inaccuracy.  He  for  hini^  him  for  he,  spoke 
and  tooh  for  spoken  and  taken',  plural  nominatives  with 
singular  verbs,  relatives  omitted  where  they  are  now 
considered  essential,  unnecessary  antecedents  employed : 
shall  for  will,  should  for  would,  would  for  wish  j  to 
omitted  after  /  ought ;  inserted  after  /  durst;  double 
negatives,  double  comparatives  and  superlatives ;  "  more 
braver,"  "  most  unkindest  cut ; "  such  followed  by  whichy 
that  by  as,  as  used  for  as  if,  that  for  so  that ;  some 
verbs  used  apparently  w^ith  two  nominatives,  and  some 
without  any  nominative  at  all.  In  addition,  many 
words,  especially  prepositions  and  the  infinitives  of  verbs, 
are  used  in  a  sense  different  from  the  modern;  thus, 
"received  of  the  most  pious  Edward,"  does  not  mean 
'from  Edward,"  but  '^hy  Edward,"  and  when  Shak- 
spere  says  that  "  the  rich  will  not  every  hour  survey  his 
treasure ybr  blunting  the  fine  point  of  seldom  pleasure," 
he  does  not  mean  "for  the  sake  of,"  but  "for  fear  of" 
blunting  pleasure. 

Upon  a  n'  >re  diligent  inspection,  these  seemingly 
hopeless  discrepancies  and  anomalies  can  be  reduced  to 
several  distinct  heads. 

The  Elizabethan  was  a  period  of  transition  in  the 
history  of  the  English  tongue.  The  enormous  influx  of 
new  discoveries  and  new  idgas,  resulting  from  the  condi- 

*  This  usage  continued  until  the  eighteenth  century.  I  have 
found  an  example  in  Steele  ("  Spectator,"  492),  "  as  agreeably  as  any 
she  in  England." 


ELIZABETHAiT   ENGLISH.  167 

tions  enumerated  in  the  preceding  chapters,  demanded 
for  their  adequate  expression  numbers  of  new  words, 
especially  abstract  terms.  Then  the  revival  of  classical 
literature,  the  prevalence  of  translations  from  the  ancient 
authors,  suggested  Latin  and  Greek  words  (but  chiefly 
Latin)  as  their  proper  equivalents.  The  language  thus 
received  copious  accessions  of  Latin  and  Greek  vocables. 
The  involved  and  complicated  periods  of  the  ancients 
formed  the  models  of  Elizabethan  authors.  In  the  en- 
deavour to  assimilate  English  to  the  Latin  syntax,  the 
constructive  power  of  the  latter  was  strained  to  the  full- 
est tension.  But  the  influence  of  the  classical  languages 
acted  principally  upon  single  words  and  upon  the 
rhythm  of  the  sentence.  The  syntax  was  mostly  Eng- 
lish, both  in  its  origin  and  its  development,  and  several 
constructions  that  are  considered  anomalous  (double 
negative,  double  comparative)  have  had  from  the  earli- 
est period  an  independent  existence  in  English,  and 
many  of  the  anomalies  specified  above  have  their  origin 
in  some  peculiarities  of  early  English,  modified  by  the 
transitional  Elizabethan  period.  Above  all,  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  early  English  was  far  richer  in 
inflections  than  Elizabethan  English.  So  far  as  English 
inflections  are  concerned,  the  Elizabethan  period  tended 
rather  to  destroy  than  to  preserve.  Naturally,  there- 
fore, while  inflections  were  falling  into  disuse,  various 
tentative  experiments  were  resorted  to ;  some  inflections 
were  rejected  that  have  since  been  reinstated,  and  others 
were  retained  that  have  since  been  discarded.  In  other 
instances  in  which  inflections  had  been  preserved,  their 
original  significance  had  disappeared,  and  in  other  cases 
the  memory  of  inflections  that  had  been  lost  still  affected 
the  manner  of  expression. 


168  HISTORY   OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

I.  Inflections  discarded  but  their  power  retained. — 
Hence,  ^' spoke"  for  "spoken,"  "rid"  for  "ridden," 
*'you  ought  not  walk"  for  "you  ought  not  walk^^"  (the 
old  infinitive).  The  new  infinitive  "  to  walk,"  used  in 
its  new  meaning,  and  also  sometimes  retaining  its  old 
gerundive  signification.  "To  glad"  (transitive),  "to 
mad"  (transitive),  for  ^'  to  gladd^/i,"  "  to  madden."  The 
adverbial  e  being  discarded,  an  adjective  appears  to  be 
used  as. an  adverb:  "He  raged  more  fierce." 

II.  Inflections  retained  with  their  old  power. — The 
subjunctive  inflection  frequently  nsed  to  express  a  con- 
dition :  "  Go  not  my  horse,"  for  "  If  my  horse  go  not." 
Hence,  as  with  the  subjunctive  appears  to  be  used  for  as 
if,  and  for  and  if,  hut  (in  the  sense  of  except)  for  ex- 
cept if.  The  plural  in  en  very  rarely.  The  plural  in  es 
or  s  far  more  commonly.  Jlis  used  as  the  old  genitive 
of  he  for  of  him.  Me,  him,  etc.,  used  to  represent  other 
cases  besides  the  objective  and  the  modern  dative :  "I 
am  appointed  hirn  to  murder  you." 

III.  Inflections  retained,  but  their  power  diminished 
or  lost.— Thus  "A^"  for  "A^'m,"  ''him''  for  "A^,"  "7" 
for  ''me,''  "me"  for  "I."  In  the  same  way  the  s, 
which  was  the  sign  of  the  possessive  case,  though  fre- 
quently retained,  had  so  far  lost  its  meaning  that  it  was 
sometimes  (incorrectly)  replaced  by  his  and  her. 

TV.  Other  anomalies  may  be  explained  by  reference 
to  the  derivations  of  words  and  the  idioms  of  early 
English.  Hence  can  be  explained,  so  followed  by  as, 
such  followed  by  which,  that  followed  by  as,  who  fol- 
lowed by  he,  the  which  put  for  which,  shall  for  will, 
should  for  would,  and  would  for  wish. 

These  causes,  however,  do  not  sufiiciently  account  for 
all  the  anomalies  of   Elizabethan  English.     There  are 


ELIZABETHAN"   EiTGLISH.  169 

several  redundancies,  and  still  more  ellipses,  "which  can 
only  be  explained  as  follows  : 

y.  Clearness  was  preferred  to  granaraatical  correctness,  \ 
and  brevity  both  to  correctness  and  clearness.  Hence,  I 
it  was  common  to  arrange  w^ords  in  the  order  in  which 
they  came  into  the  mind,  with  but  slight  attention  to 
syntactical  order,  and  the  result  was  an  energetic  and 
perfectly  clear  sentence,  though  an  ungrammatical  one ; 
as,  "  The  prince  that  feeds  great  natures,  they  will  sway 
him."  As  an  example  of  brevity,  "  It  costs  more  to  get 
than  to  lose  in  a  day." 

yi.  One  great  cause  of  the  difference  between  Eliza- 
bethan and  yictorian  English  is,  that  the  latter  has 
introduced  what  may  be  called  the  division  of  labour. 
This  may  be  illustrated  by  a  few  examples.  The  Eliza- 
bethan subjunctive  could  be  used,  optatively;  or  to 
express  a  condition  or  a  consequence  of  a  condition ;  or 
to  signify  purpose,  after  "  that."  Now,  all  these  differ- 
ent meanings  are  expressed  by  different  auxiliaries: 
^'wotdd  that,"  '''should  he  come,"  "he  would  find," 
"  that  he  may  see,''  and  the  subjunctive  form  has  become 
almost  obsolete.  "  To  walk"  is  now  either  a  noun,  or  it 
denotes  purpose,  "in  order  to  walk."  In  Elizabethan 
English  to  walk  might  also  denote  "  ly  walking,"  "  as 
regards  walking,"  "/br  walking."  In  like  manner 
Shakspere  could  write  "  of  vantage  "  for  '''from  vantage 
ground,"  "^  mine  honour"  for  ''orb  my  honour,"  "of 
purpose  "  for  "  on  purpose,"  "  of  the  city's  cost "  for  "  at 
the  city's  cost,"  "did  I  never  speak  ^all  that  time"  for 
" during  all  that  time."  Similarly,  "by"  has  lost  many 
of  its  varied  powers,  which  have  been  transferred  to 
"near,"  "in  accordance  with,"  "by  reason  of,"  "owing 
to."     "  But "  has  also  yielded  some  of  its  rights  to  "  un- 


170  HISTOKY   OF  THE   E]!^GLISH   LANGUAGE. 

less  "  and  "  except."  In  the  last  place,  "  that,"  in  early 
English  the  only  relative,  had  been  supplanted  before 
the  Elizabethan  era  in  many  idioms  by  '^who"-  and 
"  which,"  but  it  still  retained  its  meanings  of  "  because," 
"  inasmuch  as,"  and  "  when ; "  sometimes  under  the 
forms  "for  that^''  "in  that j'^''  sometimes  without  the 
prepositions.  As  a  general  rule,  the  tendency  of  the 
English  language  has  been  to  divide  the  labour  of  expres- 
sion as  far  as  possible,  by  diminishing  the  task  imposed 
upon  overburdened  words,  and  by  assigning  special 
shades  of  meaning  to  terms  which  expressed  but  one 
general  idea.  There  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  as  "  who  " 
and  "  which,"  but  such  has  been  the  general  tendency. 
\  YII.  The  character  of  Elizabethan  English  is  im- 
1  pressed  upon  its  pronunciation,  as  well  as  upon  its 
idioms  and  words.  As  a  rule  their  pronunciation  seems 
to  have  been  more  rapid  than  ours.  The  vowels  were 
probably  pronounced  as  in  Latin,  French,  and  German  : 
The  accent  was  fluctuating,  owing  to  the  contest  between 
the  native  accentual  tendencies  of  the  speech,  and  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Latin  accentual  system.  This  will  account 
for  the  varying  and  unsettled  pronunciation  of  many 
words,  which  are  accented  sometimes  on  the  first,  some- 
times on  the  last  syllable.  Hence  we  find  ac'cess,  and 
acce'ss,  ^re'ce^t  and  preoe'pt^  in'stinct  and  insti'nct, 
re'lapse  and  rela'jpse,  com'merce  and  comme'rce,.  oVdu- 
rate  and  obdu'rate,  con'trary  and  contra' ry,  sepulchre 
and  sepu'lchre,  etc.  The  conflict  was  adjusted  by  a 
compromise.  Some  words  retained  the  Latin  accent,  as 
respe'ct,  rela'pse :  others  were  appropriated  by  the  Eng- 
lish, as'pect,  ac'cess. 

YIII.  Words  then  used  literally,  are  now  used  meta- 
phorically, and  vice  versa.     The  effect  of  this  is  most  per- 


ELIZABETHAN   ENGLISH.  171 

ceptible  in  the  altered  sense  of  prepositions.  For  instance, 
"by,"  meaning,  originally,  '^  near,"  has  supplanted 
"  of"  in  the  metaphorical  sense  of  agency.  With  regard 
to  Latin  and  Greek  words  it  will  generally  be  found  that 
the  Elizabethan  writers  use  them  in  their  literal  or 
primitive  sense :  we  use  them  metaphorically.  This  is 
evident  from  noticing  the  Latin  words  employed  by  the 
Translators  of  the  Scriptures,  by  Shakspere,  Bacon,  Put- 
tenham.  Observe  the  altered  sense  of  the  following 
words  of  Latin  derivation,  occurring  in  the  Authorized 
Yersion  of  the  Scriptures,  in  Shakspere,  and  in  Putten- 
ham :  Censure^  to  judge,  simply,  without  regard  to  the 
character  of  the  judgment:  convenient^  consistent:  con- 
versation^ acquaintance,  association:  denounce,  to  an- 
nounce: insolent,  unusual:  offend,  to  cause  to  stumble, 
to  entrap :  officious,  full  of  Jcindness :  palpable,  that 
loliich  can  he  felt  materiaily :  virtue,  maAihood.  In  the 
copious  influx  of  Latin  and  Greek  words  into  the 
vocabulary  during  this  era,  many  were  introduced  to 
express  ideas  for  which  adequate  provision  had  already! 
been  made  in  the  existing  vocabulary.  These  words,/ 
finding  the  ground  they  were  designed  to  occupy  al- 
ready appropriated,  were  compelled  to  assume  either 
special  shades  of  meaning,  or  to  adopt  metaphorical,  in- 
stead of  literal  significations.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
Latin  and  Greek  words  that  were  used  to  express  tech- 
nicalities, have  acquired  a  looser  and  moi-e  indefinite 
sense,  as  their  original  import  has  gradually  faded  away. 
Thus  "  influence "  originally  signified  merely  the  sup- 
posed influence  of  the  stars  upon  the  fortunes  of  men  ; 
its  meaning  is  now  essentially  altered.  A  correspond- 
ing change  has  taken  place  also  in  the  meanings  of 
"  pomp,"  "  ovation,"  "  decimate." 


172  HISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

The  enumeration  of  the  points  of  contrast  between 
Elizabethan  and  Victorian  English  may  seem  to  have 
been  a  mere  list  of  anomalies  and  irregularities,  and 
proofs  of  the  inferiority  of  the  former  to  the  latter.  But 
it  should  be  remembered  that  the.  Elizabethan  was  a 
period  of  formation,  of  transition,  and  of  experiment ;  and 
that  its  experiments  were  not  always  successful.  While 
we  have  gained  much  in  precision,  elegance,  and  deli- 
cacy of  expression,  since  the  days  of  Elizabeth,  we  have 
sacrificed  much  of  the  ancient  melody,  the  bounding 
rhythm,  the  nervous  energy  of  our  elder  writers.  It 
may  be  safely  assumed,  however,  that  the  gains  have 
compensated  for  the  losses."^ 

*  One  of  the  most  serious  losses  that  our  language  has  sustained, 
is  the  gradual  decadence  of  the  subjunctive  inflection.  Its  judicious 
application  constitutes  one  of  the  distinctive  excellencies  of  our 
tongue,  and  it  is  employed  with  rare  beauty  and  discrimination  by 
our  elder  writers.  It  is  one  of  those  delicacies  of  expression  for 
which  the  language  furnishes  no  equivalent. 


CHAPTEK  XXI. 

THE    ELIZABETHAN    ERA.       1580-1625. 

The  student  is  now  able  to  understand  that  combina- 
tion of  influences,  by  whose  agency  the  tongue  of  Eng- 
land was  transformed,  redintegrated,  and  advanced  to  a 
degree  of  surpassing  excellence  in  a  comparatively  brief 
period,  so  that  to  the  unregulated,  fluctuating  speech 
which  marked  the  early  years  of  the  Yirgin  Queen's 
reign,  succeeded  the  fairy  strains  of  Spenser,  the  verbal 
affluence  of  Shakspere,  the  stately  periods  of  Hooker, 
the  practical  philosophy  and  far-reaching  wisdom  of 
Bacon's  Essays.  Lyly's  "  Euphues,"  1579-1580,  and 
Sidney's  "  Apology,"  1580-1581,  may  be  taken  as  the 
commencement  of  the  Elizabethan  era.  Many  of  the 
noblest  productions  of  this  era  belong,  properly,  not 
to  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  but  to  that  of  her  successor, 
James  I.,  to  the  seventeenth  rather  than  to  the  sixteenth 
century.  Still,  the  designation  is  a  correct  one:  the 
excellence  of  the  language  was  attained  during  her 
reign ;  its  capabilities  were  developed  and  matured 
during  this  period,  and  its  wonderful  improvement  was 
the  result  of  causes  which  had  their  origin  at  that  date, 
although  they  may  not  have  produced  their  most  brilliant 
results  until  the  succeeding  century 

The  Elizabethan  era  is  not  only  the  greatest  in  the 
history  of  the  English  language,  but  the  greatest,  per- 
haps, in  the  history  of  the  world.     Every  phase  of  the 


174  HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

lanti^uage  was  called  into  action,  all  its  latent  energies 
were  quickened,  its  manifold  powers  put  forth  all  their 
strength.     Ko  department   of  literary  effort  failed  to 
participate   in  the  glorious   awakening  of  the   human, 
mind.     The  Reformation  and  the  Renaissance  broke  the 
thraldom  of  scholasticism,  and   led   forth  the  intellect 
from  the  house  of  bondage.     It  was  essentially  an  age  of 
action,   of   enterprise,   of    lofty   daring,   and    splendid 
achievement.     The  study  of  ancient  literature,  now  pur- 
sued in  conformity  to  rational  methods,  smoothed  the 
ruggedness  of   our   tongue,   and   adorned   it   with   the 
graces  of  classic  art.     The  process  of  dialectic  regenera- 
tion contributed  to  the  existing  richness  of  the  current 
speech,  by   drawing  freely  upon  the  ancient  fountains 
of  the  language,  and  calling  into  requisition  its  varied 
and    exuberant   resources.      Dialectic   forms   ajre   used 
without  reserve  by  the  dramatists  of  the  Elizabethan 
era,   and  it   constitutes   one   of   the    great   periods   of 
dialectic   regeneration   in   the   history   of   the   English* 
tongue.     The  language  and  the  literature  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan  era   are  characterized   by  boldness,  originality,^ 
vigour     of     expression,     and     the     absence    of    thosej 
conventional  restraints  with  which  the  critical  taste  of 
later  ages  has  in  great  measure  restricted  the  ancient 
freedom  of  our  tongue.     It  is  the  great  era  of  creative 
power  and  of  original  conception,  when  authors,  unen- 
cumbered with  a  profusion  of  learning,  and  unfettered 
by  the  rigid  prescriptions  of  subsequent  criticism,  sur- 
rendered themselves  to  the  guidance  of  their  own  im- 
pulses, wrote  as  they  felt,  regarding  more  the  substance 
than  the  form  and  texture  of  their  compositions.     Art 
and  nature  were  harmoniously  blended,  though  nature 
predominated ;  and  genius,,  free  from  the  enervating  in- 


THE   ELIZABETHAN   ERA.  175 

Alienees  of  an  Angnstan  age,  soared  into  the  very 
heavens  in  its  unfettered  flights.  Every  department  of 
intellectual  effort  was  strained  to  the  fullest  tension ; 
the  drama,  which  attained  its  completed  form  about  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  revealed  to  the  unedu- 
cated classes  the  splendid  creations  of  contemporary 
artists,  and  afforded  ihem  occasional  glimpses  of  that 
incomparable  literature,  which  was  otherwise  to  them  a 
book  with  seven  seals.  It  thus  tended  to  promote  sim-, 
plification  of  speech,  and  served  as  the  connecting  link 
between  prose  and  verse.  The  process  of  transition  may 
be  traced  in  the  plays  of  Shakspere,  in  which  rhyme, 
prose,  and  blank  verse  are  blended  in  varying  proportions. 
In  the  hands  of  Spenser,*  the  spirit  of  Chaucer  awoke 
from  its  dreary  slumber,  touched  as  by  an  enchanters 
wand.  While  Spenser  cannot  be  ranked  as  the  greatest 
of  our  poets,  his  poetry  is  the  most  musical  in  our  lan- 
guage. So  delicate  and  subtle  is  his  perception  of  the 
connection  between  sound  and  sense,  that  one  of  the 
most  accomplished  philologists  of  the  .present  age  has 
cited  his  rhymes,  in  order  to  illustrate  the  action  of  the 
onamatopoetic  or  imitative  principle  in  the  develop- 
ment of  speech.f     His  fairy  strain  rose  ^'with  no  middle 

*  The  influence  of  Chaucer  upon  the  English  language  and  litera- 
ture of  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  appears  to  have  been 
very  decided,  and  is  beginning  to  be  investigated  with  the  zeal  and 
attention  which  its  importance  demands.  Spenser's  archaic  diction 
is  partly  due  to  the  influence  of  Chaucer ;  there  are  well-defined 
traces  of  his  influence  in  the  plays  of  Shakspere,  especially  in 
"  Troilus  and  Cressida ; "  and  there  are  numerous  allusions  to  the 
great  poet  in  the  literature  of  that  era,  in  Ben  Jonson,  Daniel,  Dray- 
ton, etc. 

f  Introduction  to  Wedgewood's  "  Etymological  Dictionary,"  1st 
edition. 


176  HISTORY  OF  THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

flight"  into  the  poetic  firmament;  every  word  is  a  lucid 
crystallization  of  the  thought,  every  sound  a  clear,  ring- 
ing echo  of  the  sense.  The  influence  of  Spenser's 
poetry,  in  reflning  and  expanding  the  metrical  forms 
and  capabilities  of  our  tongue,  as  well  as  his  influence 
upon  succeeding  generations  of  poets,  cannot  be  too 
highly  estimated.  Under  his_guidance,  our  poetry 
attained  the  full  consciousness  of  its  powers.  England 
was  now  a  land  of  song,  and  the  most  productive  period 
of  our  poetical  literature  had  fairly  commenced.  But 
the  "olde  order  changeth,  yielding  place  to  new;"  a 
greater  than  Spenser  was  soon  to  appear ;  his  conserva- 
tive disposition  and  his  retention  of  archaic  forms  and 
dialectic  peculiarities  excited  unfavourable  criticism, 
even  during  the  Elizabethan  era.  The  poet  of  chivalry, 
veiled  in  allegorical  drapery,  was  to  be  succeeded  by  the 
poet  of  nature ;  and  in  our  own  time,  the  popular 
estimate  of  Spenser,  like  the  popular  estimate  of  Addi- 
son, is  traditional,  rather  than  critical. 

"  What  are  commonly  called  the  minor  poets  of  the 
Elizabethan  age  may  be  counted  by  hundreds,  and  few 
of  them  are  altogether  without  merit.  If  they  have 
nothing  else,  the  least  gifted  of  them  liave  at  least  some- 
thing of  the  spirit  of  that  balmy  morn,  some  tones 
caught  from  their  greater  contemporaries,  some  echoes 
of  the  spirit  of  music  that  filled  the  universal  air.  For 
■the  most  part  the  minor  Elizabethan  poetry  is  remarka- 
ble for  ingenuity  and  elaboration,  often  carried  to  the 
length  of  quaintness,  both  in  thought  and  expression ; 
but  if  there  be  more  in  it  of  art  than  of  nature,  the  art 
is  still  that  of  a  high  school,  and  consists  in  something 
more  than  the  mere  disguising  of  prose  in  the  dress  of 
poetry.     The  writers  are  always  in  earnest  with  their 


THE  ELIZABETHAN   ERA.  177 

nature  or  their  art,  and  the  poorest  of  them  are  always 
distinguished  from  mere  prose  by  something  more  than 
the  mere  sound." 

In  the  dramatic  productions  of  Shakspere,  the  speech 
of  England  reached  the  full  meridian  of  its  splendour. 
Though  not  so  highly  esteemed  in  his  own  day  as  his  sen- 
sational but  brilliant  contemporaries,  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher,  his  influence  upon  the  language  of  succeeding 
generations  can  scarcely  be  estimated ;  he  may  be  said 
to  have  created  a  new  language,  or,  at  least,  to  have 
created  a  language  within  a  language.  There  is  a  Shak- 
sperian  dialect  almost 'as  clearly  defined  as  the  sacred 
dialect,  and  next  to  those  peculiar  forms  and  consecrated 
idioms  in  which  the  oracles  of  God  have  revealed  them- 
selves to  the  English-speaking  world  since  the  days  of 
Wyclifi'e,  none  are  so  firmly  engrafted  upon  our  tongue, 
none  have  so  thoroughly  permeated  its  vocabulary  and 
phraseology,  as  the  inimitable  combinations  of  Shak- 
spere. His  verbal  affluence  surpasses  that  of  every 
other  writer;  his  vocabulary"^  is  as  comprehensive  and 
varied  as  his  conceptions  of  humanity;  it  calls  into 
requisition  all  the  resources  of  that  marvellous  speech 
whose  luxuriant  richness  had  been  gathered  from  the 
four  quarters  of  the  earth,  which  had  been  moulded  and 
ascertained  by  the  painstaking  labours  of  a  race  of  wait- 
ers endowed  with  rare  discrimination,  and  imbued  with 
ardent  zeal  for  the  improvement  and  advancement  of 
their  mother  tongue. 

In  the  "Ecclesiastical  Polity"  of  Hooker,  the  language 
of  theology  attained  its  loftiest  excellence.     His  style  is 


*  Shakspere  employs  fifteen  thousand  words,  perhaps  one-third 
of  the  vocabulary  of  English  in  that  age. 

8* 


178  EISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

Latinized,  complicated,  and  sometimes  obscure,  but  he 
is  considered  tlie  first  English  prose  writer,  "  that  ex- 
hibits philosophical  precision  and  uniformit}^  in  the  use 
of  words,  and  this  is  the  peculiarity  of  his  style  which 
gives  it  its  greatest  philological  value.  This  nicety  of 
discrimination  he  extends  even  to  particles." 

In  the  style  of  Bacon's  "Essays,"  we  have  an  example 
of  the  speech  of  the  most  highly  educated  persons,  in  the 
conversational  discussion  of  practical  philosophy,  exhibit- 
ing the  excellences  of  euphuism,  without  its  character- 
istic weaknesses.  The  style  of  the  *' Essays"  is  fascinat- 
ing, though  partaking  somewhat'  of  Elizabethan  freedom 
and  disregard  of  grammatical  proprieties. 

The  final  settlement  of  the  Reformed  religion,  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Lit- 
urgy of  the  Anglican  Church,  which  in  its  various  forms 
was  prepared  during  the  reigns  of  Edward  YL  and 
Elizabeth.  This  unsurpassed  manual  of  devotion,  with 
its  melodious  rhythm,  sonorous  periods,  and  felicitous 
blending  of  Saxon  and  Romance  synonyms,  has  power- 
fully afii*ected  the  character  of  our  speech,  and  enriched 
it  with  a  variety  of  beautiful  and  impressive  phraseo- 
logical combinations. 

Ben  Jonsonj  the  friend  and  contemporary  of  Shaks- 
pei:^,. endeavoured  to  graft  upon  the  English  drama  the 
forms  of  classia.-^rt ;  Terence  and  Seneca  were  the 
models  to  which  he  desired  to  assimilate  the  bounding 
spirit  of  the  English  tongue.  But  it  is  especially  as  a 
linguistic  reformer  that  Jonson  is  entitled  to  the  respect 
and  gratitude  of  subsequent  generations.  His  "English 
Grammar"  was  the  first  scientific  and  systematic  treatise 
of  the  kind  in  the  language,  and  its  influence  in  defining 
and  regulating  the  parts  of  speech  was  greater  than  that 


THE   ELIZABETHAN   Ell  A.  179 

of  any  preceding  or  succeeding  work.  The  distinguished 
consideration  in  whicli  Jonson  was  held  by  his  contem- 
poraries, the  deference  and  homage  which  were  accorded 
to  him  in  cultivated  circles,  gave  him  an  almost  dicta- 
torial power,  as  the  arbiter  of  speech.  That  he  left  a 
deep  impression  upon  the  English  of  his  time,  may  be 
inferred  from  the  eulogies  bestowed  upon  his  memory, 
in  which  he  is  represented  as  bringing  the  language 
from  a  state  of  confusion  to  melody  and  harmony.  Some 
allowance  must  be  made  to  the  spirit  of  adulation  in 
whicli  such  productions  are  generally  conceived,  but  they 
are  at  least  significant  indications  of  the  estimation  in 
which  Jonson  was  held  as  an  expositor  and  a  reformer 
of  the  vernacular  tongue. 

The  time  would  fail  us  to  speak  of  the  dramatists, 
poets,  divines,  travellers,  scholars,  philosophers  and  his- 
torians, whose  varied  productions  contributed  to  the 
glory  of  this  brilliant  era.  It  is  the  great  central  point 
upon  which  all  the  diversified  powers  of  the  language 
were  conceii.trated  ;  the  perennial  fountain  from  which 
flow  rich  streams  of  intellectual  nutriment ;  and  the  pe- 
riod of  our  linguistic  history  which  demands  the  most 
critical  study,  and  the  one  that  will  most  amply  repay  all 
the  generous  culture  that  may  be  bestowed  upon  it. 
The  influence  of  the  Elizabethan  age  is  not  bounded  by 
the  dominion  of  the  English  language  ;  its  light  is  gone, 
out  into  all  the  nations,  realizing,  with  historic  verity,] 
the  far-reaching  vision  of  the  poet  Daniel : 

"  And  who,  in  time,  knows  whither  we  may  vent 

The  treasure  of  our  tongue  ?  to  what  strange  shores 
This  gain  of  our  best  glory  shall  be  sent, 

To  enrich  unknowing  nations  with  our  stores  ? 
What  worlds  in  the  yet  unformed  Occident, 
May  come  refined  with  accents  that  are  ours  ? 


180  HISTORY.  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LAl^GUAGE. 

Or  who  can  tell,  for  what  great  work  in  hand, 
The  greatness  of  our  style  is  now  ordained  ? 

"What  powers  it  shall  bring  in,  what  spirits  command, 
What  thoughts  let  out,  what  humours  keep  restrained. 

What  mischief  it  may  powerfully  withstand. 

And  what  fair  ends  may  thereby  be  attained  ?  "  * 

Note. — The  possessive  its. — It  is  during  the  Elizabethan  era  that 
the  possessive  form  its  first  occurs  in  the  written  English  language. 
It  had  probably  existed  long  before  in  the  current  speech.  It  did 
not  occur  in  the  Authorized  Version  of  the  Scriptures,  where  Ms, 
thereof,  supply  its  place,  though  it  was  subsequently  interpolated 
(1653) ;  Leviticus  xxv.  5.  It  is  found  nine  times  in  Shakspere,  sev- 
eral times  in  Milton.  The  first  example  of  its  use  is  in  Florio's 
"  World  of  Words,"  1598.  The  word  passed  through  a  variety  of 
fortunes  before  its  rights  were  generally  conceded.  The  present 
use  is  the  last  of  three  distinct  phases  through  which  the  language 
passed  in  regard  to  the  word  in  about  sixty  years.  First,  "  we 
have  his  serving  for  both  masculine  and  neuter  ;  secondly,  we  have 
his  restricted  to  the  masculine,  and  the  neuter  left  with  scarcely  any 
recognized  form  at  all ;  thirdly,  we  have  the  defect  of  the  second 
stage  remedied  by  the  frank  adoption  of  the  heretofore  rejected  its." 
Sometimes  the  occasion  for  its  employment  is  avoided  altogether ; 
especially  is  this  the  case  in  Shakspere.  The  very  idea  which  we 
convey  by  the  word  its  rarely  occurs  in  his  works,  and  it  has  been 
remarked  that  its  adoption  has  changed  not  only  our  style  of  expres- 
sion, but  even  our  manner  of  thinking.  Its  appears  to  have  been 
firjnly  established  in  the  written  speech  by  the  time  of  the  Restora- 
tion, 1660. 

Our  awkward  participial  construction,  is  being  done,  etc.,  has 
passed  through  a  series  of  processes  somewhat  analogous  to  those  of 
its;  sometimes  approved,  but  oftener  repudiated;  sometimes 
avoided,  as  was  its,  and  its  place  supplied  by  in  process  of,  it  has 
steadily  encroached,  and  is  now,  I  fear,  hopelessly  engrafted  upon 
the  language. 

*  These  lines  of  Daniel's  were  written  before  the  English  race  had 
acquired  an  extended  foothold  in  the  Western  world.  We  are  "  the 
heirs  of  this  augury." 


CHAPTEK  XXII. 

THE   TRANSLATION   OF   THE    SCKIPTUEES. 

The  Aiitliorized  Version  of  the  Scriptures  now  in  use  ^ 
among  all  English-speaking  Protestants  was  executed  \ 
by  command  of  King  James  I.  of  England,  being  com-  I 
menced  in  1607  and  completed  and  published  in  1611.  | 
Its  relations  to  the  English  language  are  more  impor- 
tant than  those  of  any  other  work,  and  no  other  Euro- 
pean version,  except  perhaps  that  of  Luther,  has  exer- 
cised so  great  an  influence  upon  the  character  of  the 
language  to  which  it  belongs.  In  the  first  place,  the 
English  people  were  more  thoroughly  imbued  with  the 
essential  principles  of  the  Peformation  than  any  other 
European  nation,  and  among  them  the  Bible  acquired  a 
more  extended  circulation  than  in  other  lands.  Again, 
the  great  theological  and  political  issues  which  grew  out 
of  the  Reformation,  were  protracted  longer  in  England 
than  elsewhere.  From  the  year  1611,  the  present  ver- 
sion of  the  Scriptures  was  appealed  to  as  the  supreme 
arbiter  in  all  controverted  religious  and  civil  questions. 
From  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  but  more  especially 
from  the  accession  of  her  successor,  nntil  the  arbitrary 
enactments  which  characterized  the  earlier  years  of 
Charles  II.'s  reign  suppressed  for  a  time  the  religious 
liberties  of  England,  the  highest  interests  which  affected 
man's  welfare  in  this  present  life,  and  his  happiness  in 


182  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

that  which  is  to  come,  were  present  to  the  mind  of  every 
reflecting  Englishman  as  points  to  be  determined  at  his 
own  peril  and  by  the  light  drawn  from  the  inspired 
volume.  Hence,  it  constituted  a  part  of  the  intellectual 
and  moral  wealth  of  the  English  people,  and  it  incorpo- 
rated itself  with  their  speech  to  a  greater  extent  than 
any  other  book  had  ever  done.  ^Notwithstanding  the 
objections  urged  against  particular  features  of  the  trans- 
lation by  the  advocates  of  either  side  in  theological  con- 
troversy, its  excellence  soon  secured  its  general  accept- 
ance, and  it  has  maintained,  for  two  hundred  and  iifty 
years,  the  preeminence  as  the  purest  and  most  luminous 
exposition  of  the  genius  and  beauty  of  our  tongue. 

It  is  a  prevalent  misapprehension  that  the  English  of 
the  Authorized  Yersion  represents  the  actual  condition 
of  the  speech  as  it  existed  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  On 
the  contrary,  it  does  not  represent  any  particular  phase 
of  the  language,  or  any  definite  period  of  its  develop- 
ment, but  it  is  a  judicious  and  discriminating  collection 
of  all  those  forms  of  expression  that  are  best  adapted  to 
the  communication  of  religious  truth  which  the  language 
then  contained,  or  which  it  had  contained  throughout 
the  different  stages  of  its  history.  ^\^^have  learned  that, 
the  dialect  of  Scripture  is  not  subject  to  those  essential 
changes  of  form  and  structure  which  have  affected  the 
secular  speech.  Its  sacred  idioms,  its  hallowed  forms, 
seem  to  acquire,  in  a  measure,  the  immutability  of  the 
truths  which  are  treasured  up  in  them.  Hence,  we  dis- 
cover  that  the  dialect  of  Revelation  has  remained  with- 
out essential  modification,  so  that  Wycliffe  and  Tyndale 
would  recognize  in  our  version  principally  an  expansion- 
and  a  recension  of  their  own  labours,  and  in  reading  the' 
inspired  volume  we  are  listening  almost  to  the  same 


THE  TRAiq^SLATIOif   OF   THE   SCRIPTUKES.  183 

accents  that  were  uttered  by  Tvndale  three  hundred  and 
fifty  3^ears  ago. 

Wycliffe  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  our  sacredj 
dialect,  while  Tyndale  imparted  to  it  that  finish  and  per-| 
fection  which  so  admirably  adapt  it  to  the  communica^ 
tion  of  spiritual  truth.  Above  all  others  the  genius  and 
spirit  of  Tyndale  are  impressed  upon  our  version,  and  its 
generic  excellence  is  in  large  measure  attributable  to  the 
thorough  appreciation  of  the  power  and  beauty  of  hia 
own  tongue  which  distinguished  this  truly  great  man, 
the  most  illustrious,  and  perhaps  the  most  gifted,  of  the 
English  reformers.  The  translators  of  1611  contem- 
plated merely  a  revision  of  the  labours  of  their  prede- 
cessors, and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  their  excellent  pre- 
face is  so  generally  omitted.  From  this  may  readily  be 
seen  the  extent  of  their  indebtedness  to  preceding  ver- 
sions. "  We  never  thought,"  say  they,  •"  that  we  should 
need  to  make  a  new  translation,  nor  yet  to  make  of  a 
bad  one  a  good  one ;  but  to  make  a  good  one  better,  or, 
out  of  many  good  ones,  one  principal  good  one,  not  to 
be  excepted  against.  That  hath  been  our  endeavour, 
that  our  marke."  Their  translation  embodied  all  the 
excellencies  of  previous  versions,  from  Wycliffe's  to  the 
Bishop's  Bible7  which  was  in  general  use  at  the  time 
that  the  translators  of  the  Authorized  Y^ersion  entered 
upon  their  labours. 

The  most  important  changes  which  have  taken  place 
in  the  language  of  the  Scriptures  since  1611,  are  the 
following :  many  words  of  Latin  derivation  were  then 
used  in  their  primitive  sense.  Since  that  time  they 
have  assumed  metaphorical  or  special  significations. 
Such  words  are  convenient^  conversation^  describe^  de- 
nounce^ offend^  instant^  ^prevent.     Some  native  words 


184  HISTORY   OF  THE    ENGLISH    LAiq"GUAGE. 

and  phrases  have  lost  their  original  import,  e.  g.,  "  take 
no  thought."  Some  archaic  forms  and  ancient  inflec- 
tions are  retained,  "  all  to  brake  "  (Judges  ix.  53),  broke 
entirely,  all  to  pieces,  all  to  is  an  intensive  form.  "  Fell 
downe,  and  all  to  dasht  herself  for  woe ; "  "^  hos^^i, 
hose  (Daniel  iii.  21).  This  inflection  in  en^  according 
to  Ben  Jonson,  disappeared  in*  the  time  of  Henry  YIII. 
The  possessive  pronominal  form,  its,  did  not  occur  in 
the  Translation  of  1611.  It  was  interpolated  in  1653, 
Leviticus  xxv.  5.  Of  it ;  thereof,  his  are  substituted. 
The  form  "  its"  is  flrst  found  in  the  written  language 
in  1598— Florio's  ''  World  of  Words."  The  old  infini- 
tive prefix ybr  to,  occurs  in  several  places,  ''^for  to  see^'' 
"  for  to  be  done :  "  also  the  participial  noun  with  the 
preposition  a  (at) ;  ^'  the  ark  was  a  preparing,"  "  the 
people  fell  a  lusting."  The  adverb  is  used  for  the  ad- 
■jective  :  "  thine  often  infirmities,"  where  we  would  now 
write  frequent  or  many  infirmities.  This  accords  with 
.Elizabethan  usage.  Compare  Shakspere,  "  seldom 
pleasure."  The  pluperfect  indicative  is  used  with  the 
force  of  the  pluperfect  potential.  "  I  had  fainted  (I 
would  have  fainted)  unless  I  had  believed  to  see  the 
goodness  of  the  Lord  in  the  land  of  the  living."  Some 
words  occur  which  are  now  obsolete,f '^a^,  to  plough ; 
(arare),  Genesis  xlv.  6,  Deuteronomy  xxi.  4 ;  wist,  wot, 
etc.  Dialectic  terms  are  sometimes  employed :  fat  for 
"oat,  Joel  iii.  13. 

*  Sackville's  Induction. 

f  Tlie  number  of  words  in  the  Bible,  whicli  are  now  obsolete,  or 
which  are  used  in  the  United  States  with  meanings  different  from 
those  that  they  formerly  had,  is  estimated  by  Marsh  at  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty.  In  the  Old  Testament,  five  thousand  six  hundred 
and  forty  two  words  are  employed. 


CHAPTEE  XXIII. 

THE   CHANGES    IN   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE    SINCE   THE 
ELIZABETHAN    ERA. 

During  tire  Elizabethan  era,  the  English  language 
acquired  a  degree  of  stability  which  it  had  never  at- 
tained in  the  previous  ages  of  its  history.  Its  latent 
capabilities  were  developed,  and  its  varied  powers  were 
perfected  by  the  most  splendid  culture  that  has  ever 
been  bestowed  upon  any  speech.  Its  mutations  in  the' 
succeeding  periods  have  not  been  so  violent  nor  so  es 
sential  as  those  which  preceded  the  age  of  Elizabeth, 
But  as  language  is  the  most  sympathetic  of  all  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  human  mind,  reflecting  with  unerring 
accuracy  the  fortunes  of  those  who  use  it,  and  receiving 
a  deep  impression  from  the  peculiar  conditions,  and  the 
new  relations,  introduced  by  each  succeeding  era  in  its 
history,  so  every  speech  is  liable  to  changes,  in  vocabu- 
lary, in  style,  and  in  pronunciation.  It  possesses  a 
power  of  adjustment,  a  faculty  of  adaptation  to  the  de- 
mands which  are  made  upon  its  resources,  by  tlie 
extension  of  mechanical  pursuits,  the  diffusion  of  scien- 
tific knowledge,  the  rise  of  artistic  tastes,  the  progress  of 
invention  and  discovery.  Hence  every  language  is  sub- 
ject to  perpetual  change  and  fluctuation.  The  language 
of  Shakspere  and  Ben  Jonson  would  be  inadequate  for 
the  purposes  of  our  complex  civilization  ;  the  vocabulary 


\ 


186  HISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

of  tlie  present  day  would  be  in  great  measure  unintelli- 
gible to  Sidney,  Spenser,  or  Bacon. 

The  changes  in  the  English  tongue  since  the  days  of 
Elizabeth  are  such  as  would  naturally  be  produced  by 
the  altered  relations  and  the  new  conditions  of  society, 
during  the  course  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  years.  The 
most  potent  agencies  of  change  have  been  Jthe  vast  ex- 
tension of  commercial  and  maritime  enterprise,  the 
growth  of  mechanical  pursuits,  and  the  consequent  in- 
crease of  mechanical  appliances,  the  rise  of  the  physical 
sciences,  each  of  which  has  brought  with  it  its  special 
nomenclature,  the  development  and  cultivation  of  aes- 
thetic tastes,  the  wonderful  expansion  of  human  inge- 
nuity in  every  department  of  scientific  effort,  the  multi- 
plication of  domestic  comforts,  the  advance  of  social 
graces  and  refinements,  contact  and  association  with 
foreign  nations,  foreign  wars,  conquest,  and  coloniza- 
tion. 

From  the  combined  action  of  so  many  causes,  the 
vocabulary  of  the  English  language  has  been  more  than 
doubled  since  the  Elizabethan  era.  In  the  days  of 
Shakspere,  the  written  speech  probably  did  not  contain 
more  than  forty  thousand  or  forty-five  thousand  words. 
Our  largest  dictionaries,  as  Webster's  and  Worcester's, 
have  more  than  one  hundred  thousand.  ^ 

In  addition  to  the  changes  in  the  vocabulary,  there 
have  been  important  alterations  in  the  styles  of  compo- 
sition, in  the  signification  and  accentuation  of  words.  In 
Elizabethan  times,  the  involved  and  complicated  sen- 
tences of  the  Romans  constituted  the  favourite  model  of 

*  This  estimate  does  not  include  our  provincialisms,  slang  phrases, 
and  local  forms,  which  are  part  of  the  language,  though  excluded 
from  t'le  written  speech.    They  may  be.estimated  at  many  thousands.   \ 


THE   CHANGES   SINCE   THE   ELIZABETHAN   EKA.       187 

authors.  But  notwithstanding  their  long  periods,  they 
used  as  few  words  as  possible ;  conciseness  and  brevity 
of  expression  were  sometimes  carried  so  far  as  almost  to 
produce  obscurity.  In  modern  times  this  process  is  re- 
versed ;  we  have  shorter  and  more  compact  sentences 
than  the  Elizabethan  writers,  but  we  employ  more  words 
than  they.  Words  of  Latin  and  Greek  derivation  then 
retained  their  primitive  signification.  They  have  either 
passed  over  into  metaphorical  senses,  or  have  been  ap- 
propriated to  the  expression  of  special  shades  of  mean- 
ing. In  the  conception  of  the  Elizabethans  there  exist- 
ed a  closer  connection  between  the  word  and  the  thing, 
than  in  later  ages.  The  materialistic  or  realistic  element 
was  then  much  more  powerful ;  since  that  time  the  lan- 
guage has  become  more  symbolic  and  spiritual.  Many 
words  which  were  then  in  perfectly  good  repute,  have 
become  obsolete,  or  have  descended  to  provincial  usage.* 
This  may  be  illustrated  by  comparing  the  provincial- 
isms of  America  w^ith  the  English  of  the  Elizabethan 
age.     Our  accentual  system  has  been  essentially  mpdi- 

*  Notice  the  following  list  of  words,  wliicli  were  at  different 
periods  reputable  linguistic  citizens.  Having  failed  to  keep  pace 
with  the  general  movement  of  the  tongue,  they  have  been  passed 
by,  and  left  to  linger  in  remote  localities,  and  among  the  humble 
and  uneducated,  who  most  zealously  preserve  the  memories,  the 
usages,  and  the  accents  of  the  past.  Most  of  our  provincialisms  can 
be  traced  to  the  retention  of  ancient  usage. 

Argufy,  for  argue  ;  allers,  for  always  ;  crap,  for  crop  ;  belike,  per- 
haps ;  blabber,  to  weep  ;  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  and  by  Spenser  ; 
beant,  be  not  ;  afeard,  once  as  common  as  afraid  ;  ax,  for  ask,  used 
by  Chaucer,  Go wer,  Wy cliff e,  and  Tyndale ;  bin,  for  been  ;  a  few 
broth  ;  busted,  for  burst ;  clodhopper  ;  fout  for  fought  ;  hadnt  ought; 
haint ;  het,  for  heat  ;  mo  and  infioe,  for  more,  Chaucer,  Spenser, 
Shakspere ;  mought,  for  might  and  must;  used  by  Palgrave  and 
Lydgate  ;   hit,  for  it,  the  common  neuter  of  the  A.  S.  personal  pro- 


188  HISTORY   OF  THE  ENGLISH  LAKGUAGE. 

fied.  The  Gothic  constituents  of  the  language  have 
vigourouslj  asserted  their  rights,  and  the  tendency  to 
throw  the  accent  as  far  as  possible  from  the  end  of  the 
word  is  constantly  gaining  ground.  The  insular  pecu- 
liarities of  English  have  displayed  themselves  very  strik 
ingly  in  the^  pronunciation,  which  has  lost,  since  the 
Elizabethan  era,  nearly  all  points  of  resemblance  to  the 
pronunciation  of  the  kindred  tongues,  French,  German  * 
The  individuality  and  self-sustaining  energy  of  the  tongue 
have  greatly  increased.  Many  characteristic  and  ancient 
forms  have  disappeared ;  the  weak  or  regular  verbs 
have  made  constant  encroachments  upon  the  strong  or 
irregular  form,  and  many  of  our  most  useful  and  ex- 
pressive Saxon  preterites  have  become  obsolete.  This 
will  be  obvious  to  every  reader  of  the  English  Bible,  in 
which  the  old  preterites  are  of  frequent  occurrence ; 
spake^  brake,  slang,  etc.  The  process  had  commenced, 
however,  long  before  Elizabethan  times ;  as  early  as  the 
Anglo-Saxon  period,  nearly  every  verb  introduced  into 
the  language  from  foreign  sources,  takes  the  weak  in- 
flection. This  process  commenced  at  a  much  earlier 
period.  The  parts  of  speech  are  now  thoroughly  ascer- 
tained and  regulated ;  then  they  were  fluctuating  and 

noun  lie  ;  think,  for  thing  ;  jawed,  scolded ;  cotched,  caught;  Tiolp, 
for  help  ;  consarn,  concern  ;  Ms'ti  ;  Hz,  for  rose  ;  knowed  as  how ; 
snub  ;  gull ;  dumpish. 

Many  "  Americanisms,"  falsely  so  called,  may  be  similarly  ex- 
plained. They  are  merely  words  and  phrases  that  have  been  per- 
petuated by  the  descendants  of.  the  English  colonists  in  America, 
and  in  their  day  they  were  as  reputable  and  as  serviceable  as  those 
which  have  supplanted  them. 

*  In  some  portions  of  the  United  States,  the  orthoepy  of  the  Eli- 
zabethan age  is  partially  retained,  as  in  Virginia,  for  example, 
where  the  broad  Elizabethan  a  is  often  heard. 


THE   CHANGES   SINCE  THE   ELIZABETHAN   ERA.       189 

interchangeable.  Conjunctions  were  then  employed  in  \ 
profusion,  giving  to  a  sentence-a  stilted  and  constrained 
appearance.  ISTow  they  are  used  less  frequently,  and 
with  more  discrimination.  The  language  has  been  sub- 
jected to  rigid  grammatical  discipline,  and  has  gained 
much  in  the  artistic  graces  of  stjde  ;  it  has  advanced  in 
precision,  refinement,  and  perspicuity,  while  it  has  sacri- 
ficed much  of  its  ancient  pictorial  power,  its  pliancy,  and 
its  artless  melo'dy. 


CHAPTEK  XXIY. 

THE    ENGLISH   LANGUAGE     FROM   THE   CLOSE  OF  THE    ELIZA- 
BETHAN  EKA   TO    THE   RESTORATION,    1625-1660. 

The  Elizabethan  era  embraces  the  period  extending 
from  about  1580  to  the  death  of  James  in  1625.  No 
other  era  in  history  presents  so  splendid  an  array  of  bril- 
liant names,  illustrious  in  every  department  of  linguistic 
effort.  The  light  of  this  great  age  did  not  disappear, 
even  in  the  comparative  distraction  and  decadence  that 
succeeded.  So  late  as  the  middle  of  the  Restoration, 
our  higher  literature  preserved  something  of  the  spirit 
of  the  great  dynasty  which  had  passed  away.  Sir 
Thomas  Browne,  Jeremy  Taylor,  Cudworth,  Cowley, 
Milton,  the  greatest  masters  of  our  language  from  the 
Restoration  to  the  Revolution,  were  all  born  before 
the  close  of  the  reign  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  The 
chief  excellence  of  Elizabethan  English,  however,  is 
properly  to  be  referred  to  the  period  over  which  we  have 
already  passed.  The  reign  of  Charles  L,  it  would  seem, 
might  have  kept  alive  the  spirit  of  the  age  which  pre- 
ceded it,  and  the  achievements  of  the  tongue  might  have 
been  as  illustrious  as  in  the  days  of  Elizabeth  or  James. 
Charles  was  a  person  of  scholarly  sympathies  and  exqui- 
site tastes.  The  correctness  of  his  judgment  is  mani- 
fested by  his  relish  for  the  plays  of  Shakspere.  But 
evil  days  were  at  hand.     The  political  and  religious  dis- 


FKOM  1625  TO  1660.  191 

contents  wliicli  had  been  repressed  with  difficulty  in  tlie 
preceding  reigns  now  began  to  assume  a  formidable  and 
well-defined  character.  The  virulence  of  controversy, 
theological  as  well  as  political,  began  to  divert  the 
minds  of  men  from  the  dignified  and  ennobling  pur- 
suits of  literature.  Poetrj,  affected  by  the  prevailing 
tendencies  of  the  time,  was  gradually  divided  into  schools 
or  sects.  In  some  the  spirit  of  Spenser  was  perpe- 
tuated, and  with  the  Spenserians  Milton  seems  to  have 
been  identified.  Ben  Jonson  lingered  until  1637,  the 
last  of  the  great  Elizabethans,  and  the  man  who  in  his 
day  most  powerfully  influenced  the  tastes  and  style  of 
his  countrymen.  There  was  no  longer  an  accredited 
oracle  of  poesy ;  Shakspere  had  been  dead  more  than 
twenty  years,  Milton  had  not  attained  his  thirtieth  year. 
The  polemical  works  of  Milton  have  survived  the  test 
of  time,  and  they  are  as  truly  Mil  tonic  as -his  poetry. 
"As  his  poetry  is  unique  in  one  portion  of  our  language, 
so  is  his  prose  in  another.  It  is  prose  of  that  old  Eng- 
lish, or  as  some  might  say,  of  that  old  Gothic  kind, 
which  was  in  use  ere  men  had  given  their  days  and 
nights  to  the  study  of  Addison,  and  when  it  seemed  as 
lawful  that  prose  should  come  in  the  form  of  a  brim- 
ming flood,  or  even  of  a  broken  cataract,  as  in  that  of  a 
trim  and  limpid  rivulet."  His  style  and  syntax  are 
thoroughly  Latinized,  and  his  vocabulary  is  pervaded  by 
rare  words  of  Latin  coinage,  used  in  their  original  im- 
port, and  familiar  only  to  the  diligent  student  of  our 
early  literature.  The  earlier  productions  of  his  muse 
were  perhaps  the  finest  specimens  of  finished  execution, 
artistic  excellence,  and  exquisite  discfrimination  in  the 
selection  and  application  of  words,  that  the  language 
had  thus  far  produced.      The  crowning   glory  of  his 


192  HISTOKY   OF    THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

poetic  career  was  reserved  for  the  succeeding  era,  but  the 
effusions  of  liis  youthful  genius  were  not  unworthy  of 
the  author  of  "  Paradise  Lost." 

Poetry  assumed  a  diversity  of  form  and  character ;  it 
refTected  the  sentiments  of  opposing  factions,  and  the 
political  and  religious  affinities  of  the  author.  "We  have 
a  profusion  of  verse,  exhibiting  a  strange  variety  of 
styles,  gay,  luxuriant,  austere,  fantastic,  classical,  and 
native.  In  poetry,  as  in  religion,  the  period  under  con- 
sideration appears  to  have  been  the  golden  age  of  con- 
trariety and  diversity.  The  unsurpassed  ballad  of  Suck- 
ling, and  the  graceful  classicism  of  the  English  "  Anac- 
reon,"  are  found  side  by  side  wnth  the  devout  strains  of 
Herbert,  the  pure  and  limpid  diction  of  Wither,  and  the 
dreamy  allegory  of  the  "  Purple  Island."  The  relations 
of  England  to  France,  brought  about  by  the  marriage  of 
Charles  I.  to  a  French  princess,  led  to  the  partial  imita- 
tion of  French  models,  and  introduced  some  of  that 
neatness  and  polished  correctness  which  peculiarly  dis- 
tinguish the  productions  of  French  art.  This  served  to 
abate  the  extravagance  of  euphuism,  which  continued  to 
infect  our  prose  and  poetry. 

The  greater  part  of  the  prose  written  during  the  first 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  theological  or  polit- 
ical. The  controversies  of  Charles  I.'s  reign,  respecting 
the  nature  and  constitution  of  the  Church,  displayed 
a  range  and  depth  of  theological  and  ecclesiastical  eru- 
dition w^hich  succeeding  ages  have  never  surpassed,  per- 
haps never  equalled.  The  Confession  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly  (1643  to  1648-9)  conclusively  demon- 
strates that  in  all  the  loftier  attributes  of  theological 
composition,  the  language  had  lost  none  of  that  vigour 


FROM   1625   TO    16 


and  energy  of  expression  whicli  it 
the  culture  of  Tyndale  and  Hooker. 

Much  of  the  literature  of  this  age  is  in  pamphlet 
form,*  and  is  marred  by  the  resentments  and  acrimonies 
which  are  generated  by  civil  dissensions  and  partisan 
strife.  Hence,  it  discouraged  the  growth  of  refined 
composition,  and  rendered  "zeal  and  confidence  much 
more  effectual  aids  to  success  than  art  or  the  graces  of 
art."  The  popular  element  in  the  speech  began  to  make 
its  way  into  the  written  language ;  provincialisms  more 
frequently  occur,  and  the  distracted  condition  of  the 
nation  is  reflected  in  the  deliquescent  state  of  the  tongue. 
The  theatres  were  closed  by  order  of  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment, and  all  dramatic  amusements  were  rigourously 
proscribed  by  the  zealous  sectaries  of  Cromwell. 
Fanaticism  and  austerity  did  not  fail  to  leave  their 
colouring  upon  the  current  speech.f  It  is  seen  in  the 
adoption  of  Old  Testament  phraseology  and  its  common 
occurrence  in  daily  usage :  in  the  nasal  tone,  the  sancti- 
monious drawl,  which  characterized  the  adherents  of 
Cromwell. 

The  reign  of  Charles,  and  the  period  of  the  Common- 
wealth and  the  Protectorate,  notwithstanding  their  per- 
nicious tendencies,  in  some  respects,  produced  beneficial 
results.  The  war  of  "broadsides"  and  tracts  enlisted 
the  interests  of  the  masses ;  the  topics  which  they  dis- 

*  This  was  tlie  great  age  of  pamphlet  literature  in  England ; 
nearly  thirty  thousand  were  published  between  the  close  of  the  year 
1G40  and  the  Restoration,  1660. 

f  "  During  the  usurpation  (of  Cromwell),  such  an  infusion  of  en- 
thusiastic jargon  prevailed  in  every  writing  as  was  not  shaken  ofE  in 
many  years  after." — Smft's  Works,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  349. 

9 


194  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

cussed  had  direct  reference  to  their  political  and  social 
welfare;  their  style  was. .simple,  though  devoid  of  ele- 
gance, and  they  possessed  the  elements  of  popularity 
without  the  forms  and  attractions  of  art.  Their  general 
dissemination  must  have  affected  very  sensibly  the 
structure  of  the  language,  by  producing  greater  sim- 
plicity of  style  and  departing  somewhat  from  the  com- 
plicated sentences  that  distinguished  the  prose  composi- 
tions of  that  age.  The  process  of  simplification  was 
facilitated  by  the  civil  wars,  the  commingling  of  men 
of  different  social  grades  and  various  degrees  of  intelli- 
gence, representing  sections,  still  comparatively  isolated 
and  exhibiting  marked  differences  of  speech. 

The  era  under  consideration  thus  served  to  prepare 
the  way  for  the  more  modern  and  concise  style  of  writing 
that  grew  up  during  the  Restoration,  and  which  ulti- 
mately supplanted  the  sonorous  periods  of  Taylor,  Mil- 
ton, and  Clarendon. 


CHAPTEK  XXY. 

THE     ENGLISH     LANGUAGE     DURLNG     THE     RESTORATION. 

1660-1685. 

The  events  that  were  in  progress  during  tlie  period 
whose  history  we  have  been  considering,  facilitated  the 
introduction  of  greater  changes  in  the  language,  that 
occurred  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  The  era  of 
the  Restoration  was  a  period  of  severe  trial  to  the  lan- 
guage of  England,  as  well  as  a  period  of  important 
changes  in  the  structure  of  the  speech  and  in  the  style 
and  manner  of  composition.  It  is  during  this  era  that 
we  trace  the  beginning  of  the  modern  and  concise 
style  of  prose  writing  which  in  the  end  succeeded  the 
Latinized  periods  that  constituted  the  favourite  model  of 
Elizabethan  times.  This  new  mode  of  composition, 
which  was  developed  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II., 
was  in  the  succeeding  age  remodelled,  and  invested  with 
a  purer  character,  by  the  diligent  labours  of  Addison  and 
Steele.  Hence  the  Restoration  marks  an  important 
epoch  in  our  linguistic  history — the  commencement  of 
its  modern  form. 

But  this  result  was  not  accomplished  without  a  season 
of  adversity,  through  which  the  language  was  obliged  to 
pass  in  consequence  of  the  political  and  social  conditions 


196  HISTOllY   OF  THE   ENGLISH  LAiTGUAGE. 

of  the  age.  l^otwitL standing  the  comparatively  dis- 
tracted condition  of  our  prose  and  poetry  during  the 
preceding  era,  they  had,  at  least  in  spirit  and  in  style, 
been  native  and  idiomatic.  They  were  the  product 
of  English  genius,  not  repressed,  but  only  modified,  by 
alien  influences. 

But  there  was  a  serious  change  in  this  respect. 
Charles  II.  returned  to  govern  a  people  with  whose 
tastes  he  had  no  sympathy,  and  of  whose  literature  he 
had  no  appreciation.  His  foreign  converse  had  rendered 
him  in  disposition  and  literary  predilection  a  French- 
man. His  court  was  tainted  with  the  levity  and  frivol- 
ity of  French  manners,  and  addicted  to  the  usages  and 
customs  acquired  by  long  residence  in  foreign  lands. 
Ehyme  was  introduced  into  plays  to  gratify  the  French 
tastes  of  Charles,  and  thus  a  fatal  blow  was  inflicted 
upon  the  English  drama,  then  just  beginning  to  recover 
from  the  austere  tyranny  of  Puritanism.  Under  the 
influence  of  Kochester,  Otway,  Sedley,  Lee,  Etherege, 
"Wycherley,  dramatic,  as  well  as  other  poetry,  descended 
to  a  degree  of  depravity  which  has  consigned  much 
of  it  to  oblivion,  notwithstanding  the  pathetic  power 
and  constructive  skill  which  it  occasionally  displays. 
The  drama  of  the  Restoration  attained  its  height  in 
Dryden,  who  sacrificed  the  nobler  powers  of  his  intellect 
to  the  prevailing  licentiousness  that  had  affected  the 
more  fashionable  and  polished  classes  of  society.  The 
national  taste  was  vicious  to  the  last  degree.  The  master- 
pieces of  Elizabethan  eloquence  and  poetry  were  con- 
signed to  the  tranquil  slumbers  of  the  upper  shelf.  Their 
style  was  crude  and  antique,  the  vocabulary  uncouth 
Vnd  obsolete.  The  reading  public  of  that  age  felt  them- 
selves separated   from   the  language   of   Spenser    and 


DURING   THE   RESTORATION.  197 

Sliakspere,  by  a  wider  gulf  than  that  which  divides  the 
educated  Englishman  from  Langlande  or  Chaucer.  This 
may  be  inferred  from  the  modernizations  of  Chaucer  by 
Dryden,  from  various  passages  in  his  writings,  and  from 
frequent  notices  of  Shakspere's  plays  in  the  diary  of 
Pepys. 

A  new  condition  of  society  introduced  a  new  manner 
of  thinking  and  an  altered  style  of  writing.  The  state- 
liness  of  ancient  ceremonial,  and  the  dignity  of  ancient 
manners,  faded  away  amid  the  laxity  and  frivolity  that 
were  dominant  at  the  court  of  Charles  II.  These  novel 
conditions  of  society  could  not  fail  to  affect  very  sen- 
sibly the  character  and  constitution  of  the  language. 
The  gay  cavaliers  of  the  Restoration  abjured  everything 
in  speech  and  in  demeanour  that  savoured  of  Puritanical 
cant  or  sanctimonious  phraseology.  The  prevalence  of 
French  tastes,  and  the  attempted  assimilation  of  man- 
ners and  language  to  French  models,  coincided  with  the 
violent  reaction  against  the  sombre  sway  of  Puritanism, 
and  essentially  facilitated  its  progress.  From  the  com- 
bined action  of  these  causes,  we  discover  an  altered  style 
of  conversation,  and  a  new  fashion  of  writing,  which  pre- 
sent a  striking  contrast  to  the  biblical  phraseology  and 
the  drawling  accent  of  the  Puritan,  as  well  as  a  marked 
antithesis  to  the  stately  periods  of  Hooker,  of  Taylor,  and 
Milton.  We  begin  to  trace  the  commencement  of  that 
process  of  abridgment,  and  abbreviation  of  words  and 
syllables,  that  corruption  of  form,  which  distinguish  the 
Restoration  as  one  of  the  great  epochs  of  phonetic  decay 
in  the  history  of  the  English  tongue.  'Nor  did  these 
influences  affect  the  structure  of  the  speech  alone. 
Words  originally  pure  and  elevated  in  their  import 
assumed    a    noxious    significance;     the    language    ac- 


198  HISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LAltGUAGE. 

quired  some  of  that  malignity  and  virulence  which  we 
have  already  indicated  as  characteristic  of  the  Norman 
era. 

There  are  several  most  instructive  passages  in  Swift 
(a  writer  who  has  left  us  many  valuable  reflections  upon 
the  language  of  his  time)  relating  to  this  subject,  which 
we  introduce  to  illustrate  the  remarks  just  made  in 
respect  to  the  condition  of  the  language  during  the  Res- 
toration. After  speaking  of  the  "  enthusiastic  jargon  " 
which  prevailed  during  the  Commonwealth  and  Pro- 
tectorate, he  continues  as  follows  :  "  To  this  succeeded 
the  licentiousness  which  entered  with  the  Restoration, 
and,  from  infecting  our  religion  and  morals,  fell  to  cor- 
rupt our  language,  which  last  was  not  likely  to  be  much 
improved  by  those  who  at  this  time  made  up  the  court 
of  King  Charles  IT.,  either  such  who  had  followed  him 
in  his  banishment,  or  who  had  been  altogether  con- 
versant in  the  dialect  of  those  fanatical  times ;  or  young 
men  who  had  been  educated  in  the  same  country ;  so 
that  the  court,  which  used  to  be  the  standard  of  pro- 
priety and  correctness  of  speech,  was  then,  and  I  think 
has  ever  since  continued,  the  worst  school  in  England 
for  that  accomplishment.  The  consequence  of  this  de- 
fect upon  our  language  may  appear  from  the  plays  and 
other  compositions  written  for  entertainment  within 
fifty  years  past;  filled  with  a  succession  of  affected 
phrases  and  new,  conceited  words,  either  borrowed  from 
the  current  style  of  the  court,  or  from  those  who,  under 
the  character  of  men  of  wit  and  fashion,  pretended  to 
give  the  law.  There  is  another  set  of  men  who  have 
contributed  very  much  to  the  spoiling  of  the  English 
tongue,  I  mean  the  poets  from  the  time  of  the  Resto- 
ration.    These  gentlemen,  although  they  could  not  but 


DUEIKG  THE  KESTOEATION".  199 

be  sensible  how  much  our  language  was  already  over- 
stocked with  monosyllables,  yet  to  save  time  and  pains 
introduced  that  barbarous  custom  of  abbreviating  words 
to  fit  them  to  the  measure  of  their  verses,  and  this  they 
have  frequently  done  so  very  injudiciously,  as  to  form 
such  harsh,  unharmonious  sounds,  that  none  but  a  north- 
ern ear  could  endure ;  they  have  joined  the  most  obdu- 
rate consonant  with  one  intervening  vowel,  only  to 
shorten  a  syllable ;  and  their  taste  in  time  became  so 
depraved,  that  what  was  at  first  a  poetical  license,  not 
to  be  justified,  they  made  their  choice,  alleging  that  the 
words,  pronounced  at  length,  sounded  faint  and  languid. 
This  was  a  pretence  to  take  up  the  same  custom  in  prose, 
so  that  most  of  the  books  we  see  now-a-days,  are  full  of 
these  manglings  and  abbreviations." 

These  "  manglings "  and  "  abbreviations,"  of  whir;h 
Swift  speaks,  probably  grew  up  in  gay  and  fashionable 
circles.  Their  general  circulation  in  those  classes  of 
society  which  were  the  patrons  of  poets  and  dramatists, 
affords  a  sufficient  explanation  of  their  introduction  into 
the  written  speech.  In  all  these  movements  we  may 
perceive  the  process  of  transition,  from  the  complex  syn- 
tactical structure  of  Elizabethan  times,  to  the  concise  and 
rounded  periods  of  Addison,  the  energetic  and  per- 
spicuous diction  of  Steele.  The  Eestoration  was  the  era 
of  transmutation  from  the  language  of  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries,  to  the  distinctively  modern  form  which  it 
acquired  during  the  earlier  decades  of  the  18th.  The 
phonetic  corruption  and  disintegration  to  which  the 
language  was  exposed  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II., 
resulted  in  the  breaking  down  of  the  stately  proportions 
of  our  speech  ;  it  experienced  a  revolution  in  form  and 
character  somewhat  analogous  to  that  which  was  accom- 


200  HISTORY  OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

plishing  ia  the  moral  and  intellectual  constitution  of  the 
nation  that  spoke  it.  But  in  the  midst  of  prevailing 
corruption  the  glorj  of  the  language  was  displayed  in 
undimmed  lustre  in  John  Milton,  who  "  constitutes  an 
era  by  liimself."  It  was  during  this  period  also,  that 
Barrow  produced  his  admirable  sermons;  Butler  his 
"Hudibras,"  which  has  largely  affected  the  character  of 
current  English ;  Bunyan  his  inimitable  allegory,  in 
which  are  exhibited,  to  the  full  extent,  the  resources 
and  the  richness  of  the  Saxon  element  in  our  speech ; 
and  that  "Waller  revived  the  echo  of  long-gone  melodies 
by  his  additions  to  the  plays  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 
The  brilliant  triumphs  of  Congreve's  dramatic  genius 
belong  to  the  succeeding  era. 

In  his  two  grand  Epics,  Milton .  enriched  our  speech 
with  the  varied  graces  of  classic  art;  he  reveals  the 
primitive  import  of  many  of  the  vocables  derived  from 
the  treasuries  of  antiquity,  and  adorns  our  tongue  with 
many  felicitous  embellishments  drawn  from  the  speech 
of  Athens  and  of  Rome.  His  blank  verse  rises  to  a  cli- 
max that  no  other  poet  has  attained ;  his  syntactical  order 
exhibits  the  loftiest  excellence  that  can  be  reached  by 
skilful  collocation;  if  the  order  of  arrangement  is  in- 
fringed, the  spell  of  his  poetry  is  broken,  the  charm 
vanishes,  and  it  relapses  into  languid  and  monotonous 
prose.  In  him  the  spirit  of  Chaucer  and  of  Spenser 
was  kept  alive ;  he  was  the  lineal  heir  of  that  great  dy- 
nasty of  whom  almost  every  memorial  had  fallen  into 
oblivion.* 

In  the  succeeding  chapters  we  shall  trace  the  process 
by  which  the  novel  and  imperfect  style  that  had  sprung 

*  Milton  employs  about  8,000  words. 


DURING  THE  RESTORATION.  201 

np  under  the  auspices  of  a  corrupt  court,  and  under  the 
influence  of  French  models,  was  recast  and  made  the 
basis  of  our  present  prose  style  by  the  wits  and  critics 
of  Queen  Anne's  reign.* 


*  During  the  Restoration,  the  English  language  received  many- 
words  from  the  French,  also  some  from  the  Spanish,  as  desperado, 
reformado,  etc. 

9* 


CHAPTER  XXYI. 

THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  FROM  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  ERA 
OF  THE  RESTORATION  TO  THE  ACCESSION  OF  QUEEN 
ANNE,    1685-1702. 

!N'oTHiNG  is  more  difficult  than  to  define  by  precise 
chronological  arrangement  the  fluctuations  or  mutations 
that  characterize  the  history  of  every  language.  All 
such  divisions  must  be  to  a  certain  extent  arbitrary,  as 
well  as  artificial.  The  most  that  can  be  accomplished, 
is  to  approximate  with  tolerable  correctness  to  those  al- 
most impalpable  boundaries,  at  which  a  language  passes 
from  one  phase  of  existence  into  another,  from  its 
creative  to  its  reflective  stage,  or  from  its  synthetic  to 
its  analytic  form. 

The  greater  part  of  the  period  included  in  the  century 
that  extends  from  the  Eevolution  of  1688  to  the  death 
of  Dr.  Johnson,  is  distinguished  by  the  existence  of  cer- 
tain predominant  characteristics,  that  began  to  be  devel- 
oped in  the  language  during  the  era  of  the  Restoration. 
These  distinctive  traits  continued  until  towards  the 
closing  decades  of  the  eighteenth  century,  at  times  ap- 
pearing in  greater  vigour  and  excellence  than  at  others, 
and  again  existing  side  by  side  with  other  influences, 
but  still  manifesting  their  presence  and  their  power 
during  the  greater  portion  of  the  period  embraced  within 
the  limits  of  the  present  and  the  succeeding  chapter. 
The  comparative  uniformity  of    character   that   is  im- 


PROM  1685  TO  1702.  203 

pressed  upon  this  era  of  onr  linguistic  history,  has  in- 
duced us  to  consider  it  as  one  period  (comprehending, 
for  convenience  of  treatment,  two  divisions),  exhibiting 
in  the  main  essentials  a  general  resemblance,  and  at  the 
same  time  redeemed  from  unvarying  monotony  by  cer- 
tain deviations  from  the  principal  channels  through 
which  the  language  and  the  literature  flowed. 

The  period  under  review  is  designated  by  historians 
of  our  language  and  literature,  as  the  critic^il,  the  arti- 
ficial, or  the  reflective  era,  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  Elizabethan,  which  is  the  great  epoch  of  creative  or 
imaginative  power.  Such  a  transition  is  in  perfect  ac 
cordance  with  the  natural  development  of  all  languages. 
Every  literature,  in  its  earliest  phases,  is  distinguished 
by  the  absolute  dominion  of  the  creative  or  imaginative 
element.  But  as  the  luxuriant  fancy  of  childhood 
gradually  fades  away  before  the  austere  realities  of  ma- 
turer  years',  so  the  sway  of  imagination  yields  to  those 
calm  and  reflective  faculties  that  are  called  into  action 
when  the  gravity  and  earnestness  of  manhood  succeed 
to  the  fervid  glow  of  youthful  enthusiasm.  In  the  pre- 
sent instance,  it  becomes  us  to  trace  the  special  causes 
by  whose  action  the  language  acquired  the  distinctive 
features  that  were  impressed  upon  it  during  the  critical 
or  reflective  age. 

The  Kevolution  of  1688  found  the  language  of  England 
in'  essentially  the  same  condition  in  which  the  Resto- 
ration had  left  it ;  nor  was  it  sufficient  to  extirpate  the 
deep-seated  taint  that  had  infected  almost  every  phase 
of  our  prose  and  poetry.  But  it  ushered  in  the  dawn  of 
a  salutary  change,  and  it  marks  the  development  of  that 
critical  and  regulative  faculty  beginning  to  mani- 
fest itself  in  the  English    mind,  which,  coinciding  in 


204  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

spirit  with  powerful  foreign  influences,  now  brought  to 
bear  upon  it,  constituted,  for  about  a  century,  a  deter- 
mining element  in  nearly  all  the  linguistic  productions 
of  English  genius. 

We  have  seen  that  the  effects  of  French  influence 
upon  our  language  during  the  Restoration  tended  to 
stimulate  the  prevailing  corruption,  to  furnish  new 
models  of  depravity,  and  to  intensify  the  sentiment  of 
revolt  against  everything  that  recalled  the  sway  of  the 
Commonwealth  and  the  Protectorate.  But  with  the 
advent  of  the  Revolution  we  trace  the  beginning  of  a 
new  era  in  the  history  of  the  English  intellect,  and  a  new 
era  in  the  form  and  character  of  French  influence.  Let 
us  endeavour  to  discover  the  mode  in  which  these  two 
tendencies,  the  one  native,  and  the  other  foreign,  co- 
operated and  combined,  so  that  by  the  influence  of  their 
united  action,  the  critical  age  was  developed  and  per- 
fected. 

In  the  first  place,  the  Revolution  is  the  period  at  which 
criticism  first  established  itself  as  a  modifying  element  in 
English  politics  and  in  English  literature.  The  Revolu- 
tion itself  was  a  criticism  and  a  settlement  of  constitutional 
issues,  a  manly  and  successful  attempt  to  fix  in  precise 
terms  and  definite  propositions,  and  to  establish  on  a 
legal  basis,  the  rights  and  liberties  of  England.  In  every 
phase  of  the  nation's  life,  the  action  of  the  same  critical 
principle  is  clearly  discernible.*  But  in  the  character  of 
the  literature,  it  is  most  conspicuously  exhibited,  as  may 
be  illustrated  by  contrasting  the  two  poets  who  may  be 
regarded  as  the  highest  types  of  the  creative  or  Eliza- 
bethan, and  the  critical  or  Revolution  period ,   "  This  kind 

*  North  British  Review,  March,  1869. 


FKOM  1685  TO  1702.  205 

of  index,"  says  an  admirable  writer,  ''  is  peculiarly  sig- 
nificant, because  men  of  genius  instinctively  reflect,  if 
they  do  not  even  anticipate,  the  foremost  intellectual 
tendencies  of  tlieir  own  time.  In  his  early  years,  we 
find  the  fervid  imagination  of  Shakspere,  the  type  of 
this  first  period,  engaged  upon  his  Yenus  and  Adonis ; 
Pope,  the  type  of  the  second  period,  in  his  teens  reading 
Boileau,  and  enriching  his  Essay  on  Criticism  with  the 
treasures  of  literary  wisdom,  blended  with  the  shrewd 
observations  of  his  penetrating  intellect.  The  creative 
age,  the  age  of  great  and  vigourous  productions  in  prose 
and  poetry,  had  passed  away.  Instead  of  these,  critical 
editions  of  Shakspere  and  the  other  English  poets  were 
undertaken  for  the  first  time,  as  well  as  dissertations 
upon  their  beauties  and  defects,  and  critical  theories  of 
poetry  and  literature  in  general.  It  is  true  that  these 
theories  were  often  one-sided,  superficial,  and  the  rules 
prescribed  for  estimating  the  intellectual  monarchs  of 
the  preceding  age,  utterly  inadequate  and  even  absurd. 
But  it  must  be  remembered,  to  the  credit  of  the  artificial 
age,  that  while  its  criticism  is  narrow,  cold,  and  hyper- 
critical, diligent  efibrt  was  made  to  establish  correct 
principles  of  judgment  in  every  department  of  intellect- 
ual effort,  and  important  results  were  attained  in  history, 
philosophy,  and  political  science."  * 

The  impulse  communicated  to  the  regulative  or  critical 
faculty  by  the  Revolution,  reflected  itself  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  English  language  for  nearly  a  century,  and 
constitutes  its  determining  and  informing  element. 
Thus  we  find  that  the  critical  restriction  and  refinement 


*N'orth  British  Review,  March,  1869. — Revolutions  in  the  Queen's 
English. 


206  HISTORY  OF  THE  EN-QLISH  LANGUAGE. 

of  the  language,  its  circumscription  within  some  definite 
limit,  was  the  dominant  idea  of  English  writers,  from 
the  days  of  Dryden,  who  witnessed  its  beginning,  and 
who  was  an  ardent  advocate  of  the  scheme,  to  the  days 
of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  who  saw  its  close,  and  whose 
Dictionary,  published  in  1Y55,  may  be  regarded  as  a 
partial  realization  of  the  plan.*     All  homely  and  simple 

*  One  of  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  critical  age  is  the 
utter  inability  of  its  authors  and  critics  to  appreciate  the  excellencies 
and  the  grandeur  of  the  creative  school.  There  are  numerous  al- 
lusions to  Shakspere's  plays  in  Pepys'  Diary,  in  nearly  all  of  which 
he  speaks  of  them  not  merely  with  disparagement,  but  even  with 
contempt.  Addison  did  not  include  Shakspere  in  his  enumeration  of 
English  poets,  1694  ;  in  1721,  Shakspere's  Works  were  only  in  their 
fifth  (5th)  edition,  and  the  copies  of  that  edition  published  twelve 
years  before  were  sufficient  for  the  public  taste,  "  Lucilius,"  says 
Gildon,  "  was  the  incorrect  idol  of  Roman  times ;  Shakspere  of  ours." 
"  There  is  not  one,"  says  another  of  his  critics,  "  in  all  his  works 
that  can  be  excused  by  nature  or  by  reason."  "  There  is  a  mean- 
ing," says  Rymer,  "  in  the  neighing  of  a  horse ;  in  the  growling  of  a 
mastiflf  there  is  a  lively  expression,  and  may  I  say,  more  humanity, 
than  many  times  in  the  tragical  flights  of  Shakspere."  While 
Shakspere  was  at  this  low  ebb,  and  was  regarded  by  thousands  of 
persons  of  taste  and  culture,  as  little  more  than  an  uncouth,  unedu- 
cated genius,  no  less  a  person  than  Alexander  Pope  became  his 
editor.  Whatever  may  have  been  his  qualifications  for  the  task,  no 
one  could  do  more  to  secure  for  the  great  poet  a  wide  circle  of  admirers 
and  intelligent  readers.  But  even  when  supported  by  the  charm  of 
Pope's  name,  the  publication  of  his  works  was  deemed  a  doubtful 
speculation.  Only  seven  hundred  and  fifty  copies  were  printed,  and 
of  these  a  part  could  not  be  sold  until  after  a  reduction  of  the  price, 
from  six  guineas  to  sixteen  shillings.  It  is  probable  that  even  this 
could  not  have  been  accomplished,  had  not  Pope  undertaken  to  edit 
them.  His  comments  were  confined  principally  to  verbal  criticism, 
characteristic  of  the  spirit  of  his  age.  The  comparatively  low  re- 
pute into  which  Shakspere  had  fallen,  was  owing  in  great  measure 
to  the  prevalence  of  French  influence,  and  the  preference  for  French 
and  classic  models. 


FEOM  1685  TO  1702.  207 

phraseology  was  to  be  excluded  from  the  vocabulary  of 
poetry.  Serious  poetry,  argued  the  critics  of  that  age, 
ought  to  reject  such  common  and  famiUar  terms  as  man, 
woman,  cup,  coat,  hed,  wine,  and  to  substitute  such  ele- 
gant and  delicately  chosen  expressions  as  alcove,  fair, 
goblet,  jpurple,  swain^  tide,  vest.  Dryden  seems  to  have 
contemplated  the  establishment  of  a  Central  Academy, 
invested  with  dictatorial  power,  such  as  that  which  had 
polished  the  vocabulary  and  impoverislied  the  resources 
of  the  French  tongue,  and  we  find  that  Swift  addressed 
a  letter  to  the  Lord  Treasurer,  Oxford,  suggesting  that 
"  as  a  member  of  the  government  he  should  take  some 
means  to  ascertain  and  fix  the  language  for  ever,  after 
such  alterations  are  made  in  it  as  shall  be  thought  re- 
quisite." It  was  not  the  design  of  Swift  to  exclude  new 
words  from  the  language,  but  to  retain  and  preserve  all 
such  terms  as  should  receive  the  sanction  of  the  proposed 
Academy. 

In  all  these  movements  we  discern  the  action  of  the 
native  genius,  assuming  a  critical  form,  stimulated  by 
French  influence  and  cooperating  harmoniously  with  it. 

In  1673  Boileau  (1636-1711)  published  his  "  Art  of 
Poetry,"  which  exerted  an  immediate  influence  upon  the 
style  of  composition  in  England  as  well  as  in  France. 
Boileau,  the  friend  of  Moliere,  was  the  first  to  attack 
directly  that  "  lei  esprit "  which  Moliere  had  ridiculed. 
"  He  stood  up  boldly  in  defence  of  good  sense."  "  Tout 
doit  tendre  au  bon  sens,"  he  said.  His  writings  mark 
the  decline  of  Italian  influence  in  France,  from  which 
some  of  her  greatest  writers  had  not  been  entirely  ex- 
empt, while  others  were  completely  subjected  to  its 
sway.  The  style  which  Boileau  assailed  was  that  of  the 
Precieuses    and  the   grammarians,  which   was   rapidly 


208  HISTOET  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

falling  into  disrepute,  from  its  innate  weakness.  The 
power  of  his  satire  soon  completed  its  destruction,  and 
he  was  immediately  acknowledged  as  the  great  oracle 
and  expounder  of  the  canons  of  literary  criticism.  It 
was  to  the  classic  models  of  Greek  and  Roman  literature 
that  Boileau  and  his  school  looked  for  exemplars  of  ele- 
gance and  perfection ;  it  was  by  their  conformity  to  the 
writers  of  ancient  Rome  that  the  writers  of  France  were 
to  be  judged.  This  was  the  "  touchstone"  by  which  all 
their  productions  were  to  be  tested.  'Nor  was  this  an 
ill-founded  or  arbitrary  canon  of  criticism.  It  is  from 
the  Latin  that  the  French  tongue  has  inherited  many  of 
its  excellencies,  and  the  rigid  adherence  to  rule,  the 
logical  consistency  and  precision,  that  distinguished  the 
cultivated  speech  of  Rome,  are  strikingly  perpetuated  in 
its  Langue  D'Oyl  descendant.  The  example  set  by 
Boileau  and  his  followers  soon  extended  itself  to  Eng- 
land, where  it  coincided  with  those  reflective  and  regu- 
lative faculties  which  the  Revolution  had  called  into 
action,  and  imparted  a  new  stimulus  to  critical  inquiry 
into  literary  styles  and  forms  of  composition. 

Rapin,  Bossu,  Dacier,  Fontenelle,  who  like  Boileau, 
looked  to  the  ancients  as  the  great  standard  of  taste  and 
excellence,  had  their  advocates  and  representatives  in  1 
England.  Horace's  "Art  of  Poetry"  was  translated  into 
verse  by  the  Earl  of  Roscommon ;  it  was  imitated  by 
Oldham ;  while  Boileau's  "  Art  of  Poetry,"  translated  b}'" 
Sir  William  Soame,  a  friend  of  Dryden's,  was  not  pub- 
lished until  it  had  received  many  touches  from  the  hand 
of  Dry  den,  who,  in  the  preface  to  his  plays,  had  proved 
himself  the  first  of  English  critics,  the  most  thoroughly 
independent  and  English  in  spirit.  Yet  even  he  cites 
in  the  preface  to  his  conversion  of  "  Paradise  Lost " 


FROM  1685  TO  1702.  209 

into  an  opera,  as  authorities  in  literature,  "  the  greatest 
in  his  age,  Boileau  and  Rapin,  the  latter  of  which  alone 
is  sufficient,  were  all  other  critics  lost,  to  teach  anew  the 
rules  of  writing."  The  influence  of  Boileau  and  his 
school  thus  became  as  potent  in  England  as  in  France. 
The  change  in  the  character  of  literary  composition  is 
distinctly  perceptible  in  the  altered  style  of  Dryden 
after  his  ^^  Annus  Mirabilisy  ^  (1667.)  Before  that 
time  he  had  produced  all  his  rhyming  tragedies,  in 
which  he  deliberately  followed  the  worst  French  models ; 
afterwards  he  produced  his  best  plays,  his  satires,  and 
his  didactic  poems.  His  play  of  "  Tyrannic  Love,"  was 
the  last  in  which  he  adhered  to  the  excesses  and  ex- 
travagancies of  his  French  prototypes ;  the  salutary  in- 
fluence of  Boileau  begins  to  manifest  itself  in  the  more 
elevated  and  dignified  tone  of  his  works. 

But  if  Dryden  was  subject  to  the  sway  of  Boileau 
during  the  latter  part  of  his  career,f  his  lineal  successor, 
Pope,  was  under  his  dominion  during  the  whole  of  his 
literary  history,  and  he  has  been  termed,  not  inaptly, 
the  "  viceroy  "  of  Boileau  in  England.  He  was  thor- 
oughly imbued  with  the  teachings  of  French  criticism, 
and  it  was  in  great  measure  due  to  his  influence  that 
these  teachings  so  deeply  impressed  themselves  upon  the 
character  of  English  literature  during  the  eighteenth 
century.  In  him  are  reflected  all  the  excellencies  and 
defects  of  the  critical  era ;  no  man  had  a  greater  num- 
ber of  imitators,  and  his  poetry  was,  by  general  consent, 
the  highest  standard  of  scrupulous  accuracy  and  finished 

*  Morley's  English  Writers. 

f  During  the  earlier  part  of  his  literary  career,  Dryden  was  under 
the  influence  of  the  metaphysical  school  of  poets,  Donne  and 
Cowley.  • 


210  HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

elegance,  during  the  greater  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. He  was  emphatically  the  representative  of  the 
artificial  age,  thoroughly  in  sympathy  with  its  spirit, 
and  the  fitting  exponent  of  its  linguistic  and  intellectual 
tendencies. 

But  while  the  critical  age  may  be  dated  from  the 
Revolution  of  1688,  while  its  essential  characteristics 
are  impressed  upon  the  literary  productions  of  the  Eng- 
lish mind,  until  the  later  decades  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  it  was  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  (1702- 
1714)  that  the  distinctive  features  of  the  era  attained 
their  loftiest  excellence.  It  was  during  this  period  that 
our  literature  acquired  that  centralized,  conventional, 
and  urban  tone  which  characterized  the  contemporary 
literature  of  France  ;  it  was  then  that  eloquence  assumed 
its  modern  form,  that  De  Foe,  the  father  of  our  popular 
literature,  and  one  of  the  greatest  names  in  the  history 
of  our  language,  established  his  "  Review,"  *  and  that 
Steele,  following  the  'example  of  De  Foe,  founded  that 
immortal  series  of  periodicals  which  mark  so  important 
an  epoch  in  our  literary  history,  and  whose  infiuence 
upon  our  style  of  prose  composition  is  perceptible  in 
every  sentence  that  we  write.  The  true  position  and 
services  of  the  refiners  and  critics  of  Anne's  time,  have 
often  been  misconceived  and  misinterpreted.  The  con- 
cise modern  fashion  of  writing  which  had  grown  up 
during  tlie  Restoration,  under  the  influences  indicated 
in  the  preceding  chapter,  was  tainted  with  the  linguistic 
corruption  which  prevailed  during  that  era. 

*  De  Foe's  "  Review "  was  established  in  1704,  five  years  in  ad- 
vance of  the  "Tatler."  His  experiment  probably  suggested  to 
Steele  the  plan  of  the  "  Tatler."  De  Foe  founded  our  popular  lit- 
erature ;  -Steele  and  Addison  extended  and  improved  it. 


FEOM  1685  TO  1702.  211 

It  is  true  that  a  pure  and  noble  prose  style  was  slowly 
disentangling  itself.  The  cumbrous  periods  of  the 
Elizabethans  had  given  way,  between  the  Restoration 
and  the  accession  of  Queen  Anne,  to  a  more  concise 
style  of  writing,  which,  beginning  with  Cowley,  the 
metaphysical  poet,  was  perpetuated  and  improved  by  a 
succession  of  prose  writers  in  whom  we  trace  a  gradual 
approximation  to  tlie  characteristic  excellencies  of  Ad- 
disonian times.  Cowley,  Barrow,  Tillotson,  Temple, 
Halifax,  Dryden,  South,  Sprat,  Locke,  and  Shaftesbury, 
were  the  worthy  precursors  of  our  Augustan  age.  The 
last  of  these  was  the  immediate  forerunner  of  Addison, 
and  laboured  zealously  for  the  culture  and  advancement 
of  the  language.  Perhaps  no  one  in  this  era,  before  the 
appearance  of  Addison,  exercised  a  more  decided  influ- 
ence upon  the  fortunes  of  English  letters.  Notwith- 
standing the  merits  of  these  writers,  the  conciseness  of 
Cowley,  the  elegant  simplicity  of  Temple,  the  vigourous 
English  of  Dryden,  and  the  classical  graces  of  Shaftes- 
bury, much  remained  to  be  accomplished.  The  language 
was  still  seriously  defective  in  harmony  and  precision  : 
laxity,  carelessness,  and  disregard  of  idiomatic  proprie- 
ties, marred  the  compositions  of  the  best  authors.  The 
outlines  of  our  present  prose  style  had  been  sketched, 
but  the  process  was  incomplete,  and  there  was  need  of 
much  skillful  elimination,  delicate  polishing,  and  critical 
expansion.  The  spoken  language  retained  the  grossness 
of  the  preceding  era.  The  conversational  dialect  in 
vogue  in  fashionable  circles  must  have  been  corrupt  and 
licentious  to  a  degree  of  which  we  can  form  no  adequate 
conception.  In  the  "Polite  Conversations"  of  Swift, 
we  have  a  correct  portraiture,  drawn  by  the  hand  of  a 
master  and  a  contemporary,  of  the  colloquial  style  that 


213  HISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

dates  from  the  Restoration,  and  which  continued  to  pre- 
vail at  the  time  that  Addison  and  Steele  commenced 
their  noble  labours  for  refining  and  improving  the 
mother  tongue.  A  careful  reading  of  these  "  Conver- 
sations" will  reveal  the  fact,  that  many  of  the  delicate 
repartees  and  polished  jests,  current  in  the  better  circles 
of  that  era,  have  since  not  only  been  excluded  from  the 
speech  of  reputable  society,  but  have  descended  to  the 
lowest  degree  of  provincial  and  vulgar  usage. 

Such  was  the  general  condition  of  the  language  at  the 
commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Under  the 
influence  of  Boileau,  poetry  had  assumed  a  purer  tone. 
This  improvement  in  our  poetic  dialect  was  carried  out 
to  its  perfection  by  Pope. 

But  the  style  of  prose  composition  was  essentially 
defective,  and  needed  a  thorough  reconstruction  before 
prose  could  attain  its  exalted  position  as  a  determining 
element  in  English  literature.  We  shall  now  see  how 
this  reform  was  effected. 


CHAPTEE  XXYII. 

THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE   FROM   THE   ACCESSION   OF   QUEEN 
ANNE   TO   THE   DEATH    OF   DR.    JOHNSON. 1702-1784. 

The  age  of  Queen  Anne  was  preeminently  tlie  era  of 
the  critical  expansion  and  refinement  of  the  English 
tongue.  The  critical  tendencies  which  had  been  de- 
veloped by  the  Revolution,  and  stimulated  bj  the  influ- 
ence of  Boileau,  attained  their  perfection  in  the  graces 
of  Addison,  and  the  fastidious  elegance  of  Pope.  Steele  ' 
and  Swift  were  less  subject  to  foreign  influence ;  they 
represent  the  native  or  popular  element  in  our  literature, 
at  a  time  when  the  English  mind  was  in  a  great  degree 
controlled  by  external  forces.  They  appear  to  have 
been  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  our  tongue, 
and  while  they  did  not  ignore  the  graces  of  style,  and 
were  in  some  measure  guided  by  the  prevailing  tendency 
of  their  age,  they  maintained,  like  their  illustrious  con- 
temporary, De  Foe,  a  truly  English  character,  which  is 
rarely  exhibited  in  the  pages  of  Addison.  This  is  evi- 
dent from  Swift's  zealous  labours  for  the  improvement 
of  the  language,  from  his  "  Letter  to  a  Young  Clergy- 
man," his  characteristic  delineation  of  the  linguistic  cor- 
ruptions that  were  current  in  his  own  day,  his  earnest 
endeavours  to  secure  for  the  English  language  a  recog- 
nized place  in  the  system  of  education,  and  his  appreci- 


214  HISTOI0r  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

ation,  of  our  elder  literature,*  which  had  fallen  int( 
disrepute  since  the  Eestoration.  The  same  English" 
traits  are  displayed  in  the  nervous  and  idiomatic  style  of 
Steele,  in  his  exposure  of  verbal  corruption  and  phraseo- 
logical abuseSjt  and  his  graceful  employment  of  purely 
Elizabethan  constructions.:^  It  is  in  Steele  and  in  Swift 
that  we  distinctly  trace  the  movements  of  our  tongue 
during  the  critical  era,  retaining  its  ancient  freedom 
and  pliancy,  modified  by  exotic  influences,  though  never 
yielding  to  their  sway.  It  was  Addison  who  was  thor- 
oughly subjected  to  French  influence.  In  his  conti- 
nental tour  he  had  seen  Boileau  and  conversed  with  him, 
and  during  his  entire  career,  he  seems  to  have  looked  to 
the  critics  of  France,  and  to  the  fountains  of  Greek  and 
Roman  genius,  as  the  true  sources  of  inspiration  and 
of  excellence. 

Addison  occupies  the  same  position  in  regard  to  prose 
style,  which  has  been  accorded  to  Pope  as  the  acknowl- 
edged model  of  poetic  excellence.  His  influence  over 
succeeding  generations  was  so  great  "that  any  thing 
w^hich  tended  to  form  his  style,  modified,  through  him, 
the  writings  of  almost  all  his  successors  throughout  the 
century.  -  He  seems  to  have  possessed  the  marvelous 
faculty  of  taking  the  good  and  rejecting  the  bad  from 

*"Tlie  period  wherein  the  English  tongue  received  the  greatest 
improvement,  I  take  to  commence  with  the  reign  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, and  to  conclude  with  the  groat  Rebellion  in  1642."  This  was 
the  "barbarous  age"  that  produced  "  old  Spenser,"  as  Addison 
styles  him  in  his  college  poem,  1694, 

t  Tatler,  No.  13. 

X  Spectator,  No.  492.  "  As  agreeably  as  any  sJie  in  England."  This 
is  purely  Elizabethan.  I  do  not  think  it  occurs  in  Addison.  It  is 
one  of  those  slight  but  unmistakable  touches  which  reveal  the  true 
spirit  of  an  author. 


FROM  1702  TO  1784. 

the  works  of  his  predecessors,  and  in 
vigour. of  the  old  English  writers  was  softened  by 
icacy  and  refinement  of  the  modern  French  school.  In 
his  pure  and  polished  style,  we  see  this  influence  ex- 
hibited in  its  best  form."  *  His  conformity  to  French 
models  extended  the  reputation  of  his  works  across  the 
channel,  at  a  time  when  English  literature  was  almost 
unknown  beyond  the  limits  of  the  island.  Many  dis- 
tinguished foreigners  were  among  the  subscribers  to  his 
works.  In  his  tragedy  of  Cato,  he  observed  the  unities 
of  time  and  place  which  have  bound  up  the  French 
drama  within  circumscribed  and  arbitrary  limits,  thor- 
oughly opposed  to  the  free  and  natural  spirit  of  the 
Elizabethan  school.  Hence  he  received  from  Yoltaire 
(who  denounced  Shakspere  as  a  barbarian  genius)  the 
glowing  tribute,  "Monsieur  Addison  is  the  first 
Englishman  who  has  made  a  reasonable  tragedy."  This 
of  the  nation  that  had  produced  Hamlet,  Lear,  and 
Macbeth ! 

The  impress  of  Addison  upon  the  language  of  his 
age  and  of  the  succeeding  age  was  deeper  than  that  of 
his  greater  contemporaries,  and  for  the  reason  that  he 
was  in  perfect  accord  with  the  dominant  spirit  of  the 
era.  Idiomatic  in  style,  polished  and  perspicuous  in 
diction,  he  was  assimilated  in  sentiment  and  in  taste  to 
the  masterpieces  of  antiquity,  and  to  the  critical  canons 
of  Boileau.  The  incomparable  literature  of  Elizabethan 
times  failed  to  excite  his  sympathy  or  to  arouse  his 
admiration ;  he  was  devoid  of  appreciation  of  every- 
thing that  could  not  be  conformed  to  the  standard  of 

*  Woods'  "  Eeciprocal  Influence  of  Englisli  and  French  Literature 
in  the  XVIII.  Century." 


216  HISTOBY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

"  good  sense,"  and  he  undertook  to  bring  Milton  to  the 
attention  of  his  countrymen  by  comparing  him  to  Homer 
and  Yirgil,  a  mark  of  deference  to  the  spirit  of  his 
age. 

In  1694,  an  undergraduate  at  Oxford,  we  find  Addi- 
son, in  a  poem  on  English  poets,  written  for  a  college 
friend,  omitting  the  name  of  Shakspere,  and  speaking 
of  Chaucer  and  Spenser  in  such  terms  as  these : 

"  Old  age  has  rusted  what  the  poet  writ, 
Worn  out  his  language,  and  obscured  his  wit, 
In  vain  he  jests  in  his  unpolished  strain. 
And  tries  to  make  his  readers  laugh,  in  vain. 
Old  Spenser  next,  warm  with  poetic  rage, 
In  ancient  tales  amused  a  barbarous  age. 
But  now  the  mystic  tale  that  pleased  of  yore. 
Can  charm  an  understanding  age  no  more." 

ISTor  do  his  attainments  in  English  philology,  his  ac- 
quaintance with  the  historical  development  and  the 
structural  peculiarities  of  his  native  tongue,  appear  to 
have  been  of  a  higher  order.  Thus,  we  find  him  ex- 
plaining the  '5  of  the  genitive  or  possessive  case,  as  the 
"  his  or  her  of  our  ancestors,"  and  writing  "  Ulysses  his 
bow"  for  Ulysses's  bow.  Of  the  genitive  sign  '5,  Ben 
Jonson,  in  the  "  barbarous  age  "  that  produced  a  Spenser 
and  a  Shakspere,  had  given  a  much  more  rational  and 
satisfactory  explanation. 

Among  all  the  men  of  this  time,  perhaps  no  one  con- 
tributed more  efficiently  to  the  establishment  of  a  chaste 
and  polished  style  than  Bolingbroke.  His  exalted  posi- 
tion among  scholars  and  statesmen,  the  charms  of  his 
conversation,  and  the  readiness  as  well  as  the  finish  of 
his  eloquence,  must  have  rendered  him  a  model  that  all 
cultured  circles  strove  to  imitate.     It  is  said  that  liis 


FROM  1702  TO  1784.  217 

ordinary  utterances  and  impromptu  speeches  possessed 
all  the  rhythmical  harmony  and  "golden  cadence"  that 
belong  to  painfully  wrought  periods,  and  which  most 
men  acquire  by  the  assiduous  culture  of  a  lifetime.  His 
conversation  or  his  writings  were  rarely  marred,  even  by 
trifling  blemishes,  and  in  an  age  during  which  correct- 
ness was  much  sought  after  and  but  little  understood, 
he  must  have  wielded  a  decided  influence  in  forming 
and  regulating  the  conversational  dialect,  as  well  as  the 
style  of  writing  of  his  cultivated  contemporaries.* 

The  'English  genius,  modified  but  not  repressed,  is 
represented  in  Dryden,  Steele,  and  Swift.  In  Pope, 
Addison,  and  Bolingbroke,  we  witness  the  action  of  the 
native  mind  subjected  to  the  sway  of  classic  models  and 
foreign  canons  of  criticism,  but  even  in  its  servitude  re- 
taining something  of  the  spirit  of  its  original  freedom. 
Wherein  consists  the  excellence  and  the  glory  of  these 
writers  ?  'Not  in  original  or  creative  power,  for  of  this, 
except  Swift,  they  possessed  but  little,  and  they  seem 
rather  to  have  avoided  anything  that  bordei'ed  upon  the 
sublime  or  lofty.  JNTot  in  the  extent  or  variety  of  their 
learning,  for  their  attainments  were,  with  few  exceptions, 
lacking  in  accuracy  and  comprehensiveness,  and  there 
appear  in  every  issue  of  the  British  Reviews  articles 
surpassing  in  extent  and  diversity  of  knowledge  any- 
thing that  ever  emanated  from  the  pen  of  Steele  or 
Addison.  Their  true  merit  consists  in  this:  not  that 
they  invented  or  constructed  a  new  style,  but  that  they 
adopted   the   mode    of   writing  which   had  come  into 

*  Some  idea  of  Bolingbroke's  popularity  and  influence  as  a  writer 
may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  his  contributions  to  the  Crafts- 
man gave4;hat  journal  a  circulation  far  exceeding  that  of  the  Spec- 
tator. 


218  HISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

fashion  daring  the  Restoration,  eliminated  its  offensive 
features,  infused  into  it  a  purer  tone,  and  impressed  upon 
it  the  essential  characteristics  of  our  present  prose  com- 
position. They  banished,  in  great  measure,  phonetic 
corruption  and  obscenity  from  the  colloquial  dialect,  and 
gradually  dispelled  that  lingering  connection  which  still 
subsisted  in  the  public  mind  between  purity  and  auster- 
ity, between  virtue  and  fanaticism. 

Such  was  the  task  that  they  accomplished,  and  they 
performed  it  thoroughly.  Their  vocabulary  was  culled 
with  fastidious  and  painful  diligence,  homely  words  and 
phraseology  were  rejected,  the  more  concise  and  polished 
Latin  or  Romance  terms  were  preferred  to  their  ener- 
getic Saxon  equivalents,  their  periods  were  constructed 
with  supreme  regard  to  symmetry  and  harmonious  ar- 
rangement; external  grace,  beauty  of  form  were  the 
highest  excellence  to  which  the  critical  taste  aspired. 

Let  us  not  misconceive  the  true  character  of  this  era, 
nor  be  blinded  to  its  imperfections  by  the  traditional 
lustre  which  envelops  the  name  of  Addison.  Let  us 
not  indulge  the  delusion  that  the  critical  taste  resulted 
in  the  perfecting  of  style,  either  written  or  colloquial. 
The  adverse  testimonies  are  too  numerous  to  admit  im- 
peachment.* The  conversational  dialect  of  this  age  was 
blemished  by  phonetic  corruptions,  marred  by  gross  and 
widely  prevailing  profanity,  and  disfigured  by  affecta- 
tions as  grotesque  as  those  which  characterized  the  worst 
stages  of  euphuism.  It  was  against  these  abuses  that 
the  powers  of  the  critical  school  were,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, directed,  and  it  is  in  these  respects  that  their  labours 
were  attended  with  most  salutary  results.     The  conver- 

*  Swift,  Steele. 


FBOM  1702  TO  1784  219 

sational  style  even  of  the  educated  was  pervaded  by  in- 
accuracies of  expression,  and  Dr.  King  (1685-1763),  an 
illustrious  scholar  of  the  last  century,  informs  us  that  in 
all  his  associations  with  the  men  of  his  generation,  he 
had  met  but  three  who  expressed  themselves  with  such 
purity  and  elegance  that  their  conversation,  if  committed 
to  writing,  would  possess  the  attractions  of  a  finished  and 
cultivated  style.  These  were  Bishop  Atterbury,  Dr. 
Gower,  Provost  of  Worcester  College,  and  Dr.  Sam. 
Johnson,  l^o  regard  was  paid  to  the  systematic  study 
of  English  in  schools,  no  attention  to  the  cultivation  of 
pure  English  style;  treatises  on  English  grammar  appear 
to  have  been  almost  unknown.  Affectation  of  French 
phrases,  introduced  by  the  Continental  wars,  seems  to 
have  prevailed ;  the  want  of  training  in  pulpit  elocution 
was  more  common  then  even  than  now ;  pedantry,  and 
the  absence  of  "  the  least  conception  of  a  style,"  consti- 
tuted the  bane  of  the  clergy ;  the  absence  .of  accuracy 
and  fluency  of  expression  was  a  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic of  the  age."^  Much  of  this  internal  disorder  is 
veiled  from  our  gaze  by^the  time-honoured  glory  that  is 
associated  with  the  names  of  Addison  and  Pope,  and  by 
the  delusive  splendour  that  gilds  the  Augustan  age  of 
Anne.  The  reputation  of  this  era  rests  principally  upon 
its  praiseworthy  efforts  to  eradicate  the  linguistic  corrup- 
tions of  a  preceding  period,  and  in  its  placing  upon  a 
firm  and  enduring  basis  our  present  prose  style. 
In  these  respects  its  influence  has  been  productive 
of  most  beneficial  results.  But  the  entire  era  is 
marked  by  its  adherence  to  conventional  usages; 
its  theory  of  language  was  conventional,  its  criticism 

*  Spectator,  353.     Tatler,  70, 165, 234.     Swift's  "  Letter  to  a  Young 
Clergyman."     Dr.  King's  "Anecdotes  of  his  own  Time." 


220  HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

was  often  superficial  and  circumscribed  by  artificial 
limits.  In  tlie  popular  literature  founded  by  De  Foe, 
in  the  productions  of  the  great  English  novelists, 
Richardson,  Fielding,  and  Smollett,  the  bounding 
spirit  of  the  English  tongue  and  the  unchecked  vigour 
of  the  English  mind  are  kept  alive;  in  the  notes  of 
Thomson,  the  preluding  strains  of  Goldsmith,  the  pol- 
ished compositions  of  Gray,  the  glowing  verses  of  Col- 
lins, the  graceful  periods  of  Hawkesworth,  the  revival 
of  our  ballad  poetry  by  the  publication  of  "Percy's 
Reliques,"  we  have  occasional  intimations  of  the  glory 
that  was  to  be  revealed.  But  these  deviations  from  the 
main  current  of  the  literature  did  not  at  once  arrest 
those  peculiar  tendencies  which  had  been  so  deeply  im- 
pressed upon  it  during  the  preceding  era,  and  other 
agencies,  more  potent  in  their  nature,  and  more  efficient 
in  their  action,  were  to  be  called  into  service  ere  should 
be  broken  the  magic  spell  with  which  Addison  and  Pope 
had  bound  our  prose  and  poetry.  'No  one,  even  of  the 
great  historical  triumvirate  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
can  be  regarded  as  a  model  of  pure  English  style,  simple 
and  unaffected,  "elegant,  but  not  ostentatious."  The 
style  of  Hume  is  marred  by  Scotticisms ;  that  of  Rob- 
ertson and  Gibbon  by  a  pompous  diction  and  a  Latin- 
ized phraseology.  With  the  rise  of  Cowper,  we  have  J 
the  first  decided  indication  that  the  school  of  Dryden  i 
and  Pope  was  hastening  to  its  setting,  and  with  the 
death  of  Dr.  Johnson  the  dismal  uniformity  of  conven- 
tionalism begins  to  be  dispelled. 

In  the  concluding  chapter  we  shall  briefly  trace  the 
action  of  those  agencies  by  whose  influence  the  spirit  of 
Elizabethan  times  was  revived  in  full  vigour,  and  an 
epoch  in  our  linguistic  history  ushered  in  which  blended    j 


FROM  1702  TO  1784  221 

the  excellencies  of  the  creative  school  with  the  softer 
graces  of  a  reflective  age,  producing  a  combination 
which  almost  rivalled  the  splendour  of  the  Yirgin 
Queen's  brilliant  reign. 


CHAPTEE   XXYIIT. 

THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  FKOM  THE  DEATH  OF  DR.  SAMUEL 
JOHNSON  (1Y84:)  TO  THE  CLOSE  OP  THE  GEORGIAN  ERA 
(1830). 

The  death  of  Dr.  Johnson  marks  an  event  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  our  linguistic  history.  It  was  the 
end  of  dictatorship,  and  "King  Samuel"  has  had  no 
acknowledged  successor  upon  the  throne  of  English  litera- 
ture. But  it  foreshadowed  an  event  of  infinitely  greater 
importance  than  the  mere  downfall  of  literary  autocracy. 
'No  writer,  perhaps,  was  ever  more  thoroughly  the  ex- 
ponent of  his  age,  the  embodiment  of  its  conventional 
spirit,  and  its  deference  to  ancient  precedent.  Ko  man 
ever  wielded  a  more  decided  influence  in  moulding  the 
style,  and  directing  the  intellectual  efforts  of  his  con- 
temporaries, and  his  diction,  generally  pompous,  turgid, 
and  thoroughly  Latinized,*  was  the  acknowledged  stand- 
ard of  excellence  among  the  writers  of  his  era,  nor  did  it 
fail  to  affect  the  style  of  succeeding  generations.  The 
coldly  classical  tastes  of  Dr.  Johnson,  his  diffident  and 
cautious  estimate  of  Shakspere,  are  too  well  known  to 
require  comment.  Hence,  when  he  fell,  conventional- 
ism lost  its  ablest  and  most  influential  champion.  This 
event  coincided  with  the  development  of  those  mighty 


*  Dr.  Jolinson's  style  was  in  great  measare  modelled  upon  that 
of  Sir  Thos.  Browne,  whose  Latinisms  are  worthy  of  careful  study. 


FROM  1784  TO  1830.  223 

political  conflicts  which  were  soon  to  transform  the 
character  of  European  society,  annihilate  ancient  pre- 
scription, efface  the  vestiges  of  feudalism,  create  new 
modes  of  thought,  new  systems  of  philosophy,  and  dis- 
pel the  dreary  formality  which  had  marked  the  intel- 
lectual creations  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Every  literature  derives  its  form  and  colouring  from 
the  spirit  of  the  era  which  evokes  it  to  life ;  it  is  "  the 
artistic  expression  in  words,  of  what  men  think  and 
feel."  The  style  of  every  age  has  its  clearly  defined 
characteristics,  impressing  upon  it  a  strong  individuality, 
and  distinguishing  it  from  the  style  of  succeeding  or 
preceding  eras.  Each  of  these  peculiar  styles  is  de- 
veloped by  certain  political  and  social  conditions,  and 
moulded  in  accordance  with  the  prevailing  tastes  of  the 
period.  There  was  a  style  created  by  the  Reformation  in 
the  sixteenth  century  ;  tliere  was  another  formed  during 
the  Restoration,  and  perfected  during  the  age  of  Anne ; 
this  style  was  expanded,  and  invested  with  a  nobler  tone 
and  character,  by  the  stimulus  which  the  French  Revo- 
lution imparted  to  every  phase  of  linguistic  and  literary 
effort.  Convulsing  the  depths  of  European  society,  it 
undermined  the  barriers  of  venerable  tradition,  dispel- 
ling the  accumulations  of  long  established  prejudices  and 
absurd  veneration  for  antiquity.  Isolation  and  pro- 
scription began  to  fade  away  before  the  advent  of  gener- 
ous tolerance,  enlightened  sympathy,  increasing  appreci- 
ation of  the  true  ideal  in  art,  and  genuine  appreciation 
of  nature.  The  true  standard  of  excellence  was  no 
longer  sought  in  mere  external  grace,  obsequious  defer- 
ence to  ancient  prototypes,  and  foreign  models.  The 
spirit  and  character  of  the  nineteenth  century  are,  in 
every  essential  respect,  a  revolt  against  the  dominant 


224  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

principles  and  established  traditions  of  the  eighteenth,  a 
perfect  antithesis  to  its  convBntional  and  superficial  ten- 
dencies, a  return  from  the  purely  formal  to  the  investi- 
gation of  the  inner  life;  from  the  form  to  the  spirit, 
from  the  outward  to  the  inward. 

This  distinguishing  feature  of  the  present  century  is 
conspicuously"  displayed  in  every  manifestation  of  its  in- 
tellectual life ;  in  the  marvellous  expansion  of  the  phy- 
sical sciences,  in  the  splendid  developments  of  linguistic 
science,  which  is  based  in  great  measure  upon  the  inter- 
nal resemblances  of  speech,  in  the  brilliant  generaliza- 
tions of  Cuvier,  and  the  discovery  of  Grimm's  law,  in 
all  of  which  the  application  of  the  same  principle  is  ex- 
hibited in  its  grandeur  and  diversity.  Every  phase  of 
intellectual  efibrt  participated  in  the  great  reaction  that 
dates  from  the  closing  decades  of  the  eighteenth  century; 
poesy  was  transformed,  philosophy  was  reconstructed, 
eloquence  assumed  a  nobler  tone,  the  discovery  of  San- 
skrit opened  up  vast  fields  of  linguistic  enterprise,  and 
placed  upon  aai  enduring  basis  the  magnificent  science 
of  comparative  Philology.  One  day  was  as  a  thousand 
years  in  the  growth  of  the  human  mind.  These  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics  of  the  century  have  power- 
fully impressed  themselves  upon  its  literary  productions, 
and  have  infused  into  them  a  depth  of  conception,  a 
comprehensiveness,  and  a  degree  of  originality,  far  sur- 
passing the  most  delicately  wrought  creations  of  the  pre- 
ceding century.  The  gorgeous  eloquence  of  Burke, 
assuming  a  richer  colouring  with  the  flight  of  declining 
years,  adorned  the  dialect  of  oratory  with  a  diversity  of 
phraseological  combinations,  many  of  which  have  passed 
from  the  confines  of  rhetoric,  and  have  enriched  the  ex- 
uberant affluence  of    the  current  speech.     The  sweet 


FROM  1784  TO  1830.  225 

strains  of  Cowper,  breathing  the  spirit  of  earnest  piety, 
and  pervaded  by  an  originality  of  style  and  sentiment 
to  which  our  literature  had  long  been  a  stranger,  clearly 
announced  the  dawn  of  a  new  era  in  our  own  linguistic 
history.  Compared  with  any  of  his  predecessors,  he  is 
what  we  may  call  a  natural  poet.  "  He  broke  through 
conventional  forms  and  usages  in  a  manner  more  dar- 
ing than  any  English  poet  before  him  had  done,  at  least 
since  the  genius  of  Pope  had  bound  in  its  spell  the 
rhythm  of  English  poetry." 

The  three  great  revivals  in  our  literature  were  in  the 
main  effected  by  the  civil  and  religious  convulsions  of 
England  and  of  Europe  at  the  time,  and  at  each  of  these 
grand  awakenings  the  impulse  seems  to  have  been  com- 
municated by  a  foreign  literature,  which  had  developed 
new  life  and  vigour.  In  the  age  of  Elizabeth,  the  inspira- 
tion was  caught  from  the  literature  of  Italy ;  during  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne  from  that  of  France ;  in  the  present 
period,  from  that  of  Germany. 

Our  last  great  period,  extending  over  half  a  century 
from  the  appearance  of  Cowper  and  Burns,  is  without  a 
parallel  in  our  linguistic  history,  if  we  except  the  age 
of  Elizabeth.  In  comparing  the  creations  of  these  two 
periods,  we  discover,  in  the  poetical  productions  of  the 
former,  greater  license,  and  at  the  same  time  greater 
flexibility,  than  in  those  of  the  latter  ;  but  in  some  essen- 
tial respects  our  more  recent  poetry  is  justly  entitled  to 
the  preference.  It  is  not  defaced  by  the  conceits  of 
euphuism,  and  it  is  generally  more  symmetrical  and 
consistent.  In  form  and  sentiment,  it  is  often  strikingly 
assimilated  to  the  style  of  our  ancient  poesy.  It  consti- 
tutes one  of  the  preeminent  excellencies  of  this  last 
great  period,  that  it  exhibits  the  genius  and  spirit  of  the 


236  HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

creative  era,  tempered  by  the  gentler  graces  of  the  criti- 
cal age. 

In  all  that  pertains  to  grace  of  structure,  the  poetry  of 
the  nineteenth  century  may  fairly  claim  the  preference, 
notwithstanding  the  numerous  passages  of  incomparable 
excellence  in  the  dramas  of  Shakspere.  In  elaborate 
execution,  harmonious  and  elegant  versification,  some  of 
the  poets  of  the  earlier  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
have  never  been  surpassed.  Cowper,  Keats,  Shelley, 
Byron,  Scott,  Coleridge,  Moore,  Campbell,  Wordsworth, 
present  an  array  of  poetic  genius  but  little  lower  than 
the  bright  cluster  that  gilded  the  "glorious  reign  of 
great  Elizabeth."  The  exquisite  perception  of  natu- 
ral loveliness,  the  rich  vocabulary,  that  distinguish 
the  poetry  of  Wordsworth ;  the  rare  verbal  discrimina- 
tion, Spenserian  fancy,  and  Platonic  tenderness,  that 
reign  throughout  the  pages  of  Coleridge ;  the  dulcet 
strains  of  Keats,  imbued  with  the  very  soul  of  poesy, 
established  their  right  of  succession,  as  the  lineal  heirs 
of  Chaucer,  of  Shakspere,  and  Milton.  Under  the  in- 
fluence of  these  great  masters,  the  poetic  dialect  was 
again  enriched  by  a  copious  revival  of  Anglo-Saxon 
words  ;  the  nervous  diction  of  our  elder  poets  and  think- 
ers was  called  into  requisition  ;  familiar  and  homely 
phrases  were  freely  admitted  into  the  vocabulary  of 
poetry,  which  now  lost  its  urban  and  conventional  chai- 
acter ;  the  ancient  fountains  of  the  speech  were  again  ex- 
plored ;  the  process  of  dialectic  regeneration  was  again 
vigourously  at  work,  and  much  of  the  buried  and  for- 
gotten wealth  of  our  language  was  reclaimed ;  the 
Elizabethan  masters  were  studied  with  interest ;  imita- 
tions of  their  style  were  not  unfrequent,  and  the  merits 
of  Shakspere  were  at  last  recognized  and  appreciated. 


FBOM  1784  TO  1830.  237 

By  the  close  of  the  Georgian  era  (1830),  the  poetic 
spirit  seemed  to  have  spent  its  mightiest  energies,  and 
by  a  transition  familiar  in  the  history  of  every  language, 
the  supremacy  began  gradually  to  revert  to  prose,  which 
during  the  Yictorian  age  has  maintained  the  ascendency. 
Macaulay  and  De  Quincey  attained  the  same  brilliant 
distinction  in  prose  composition  that  Shelley,  Byron, 
and  Coleridge  had  won  in  the  domain  of  poesy,  and 
the  present  poet  laureate  is  the  only  worthy  repre- 
sentative of  that  illustrious  throng  which  cast  so  bright 
a  glow  over  the  closing  years  of  the  eighteenth,  and  the 
first  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Since  the  close 
of  the  Georgian  era  there  have  doubtless  been  some 
essential  changes  in  the  language,  but  they  will  be  more 
distinctly  perceptible  to  succeeding  generations  than  to 
our  own.  They  do  not  therefore  fall  properly  within 
the  scope  of  this  history,  and  must  be  reserved  for 
future  consideration  and  discussion. 


L/»\^ 


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14 


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